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In United States local government, a consolidated city-county (see below for alternative terms) is formed when one or more cities and their surrounding county (parish in Louisiana, borough in Alaska) merge into one unified jurisdiction. As such it is a type of unitary authority that has the governmental powers of both a municipal corporation and a county.[1]

A consolidated city-county is different from an independent city, although the latter may result from consolidation of a city and a county and may also have the same powers as a consolidated city-county. An independent city is a city not deemed by its state to be located within the boundary of any county and considered a primary administrative division of its state.[2] A consolidated city-county differs from an independent city in that the city and county both nominally exist, although they have a consolidated government, whereas in an independent city, the county does not even nominally exist.[1] Furthermore, a consolidated city-county may still contain independent municipalities maintaining some governmental powers that did not merge with the rest of the county.[3]

Not considering Hawaii, which has no independent municipalities, the Midwest and Upper South have the highest concentration of large consolidated city-county governments in the United States, including Indianapolis, Indiana; Nashville, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky; Kansas City, Kansas; and Lexington, Kentucky. The largest consolidated city-county in the United States by population is Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the largest by land area is Sitka, Alaska.

Terminology

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The term consolidated city-county refers to a consolidated jurisdiction in a state that is otherwise divided into counties. In Louisiana, which is divided into parishes, the equivalent jurisdiction is known as either a city-parish or a consolidated government, depending on the locality.[4] In Alaska, it is known as a unified municipality, unified home rule borough, or city and borough.[5][6] The United States Census Bureau generically refers to any such jurisdiction as a consolidated city, regardless of the jurisdiction into with the city has consolidated.[7] Although California is divided into counties, a consolidated city-county is officially termed a city and county.[8]

Overview

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Consolidated city-counties are typically formed to address particular government challenges. Among the benefits of having a unified jurisdiction include potential cost savings, more efficiency, increased legal powers and revenue sources, and a more streamlined planning system.[1]

Most consolidated city-counties have a single chief executive who acts as both the city mayor and as the head of the county government, and a multi-district elected body that serves as both the city council and as the county legislative body.[1]

In many states, consolidated city-counties must be approved by voters.[1] According to information compiled by former Albuquerque mayor David Rusk, 105 referendums were held in the United States between 1902 and 2010 to consider proposals to consolidate cities and counties. Only 27 of these proposals were approved by voters.[9]

Wyandotte County, Kansas, uses the term "unified government" to refer to its consolidation with Kansas City, Kansas, and most of the towns within the county boundaries remain separate jurisdictions within the county. Individual sections of a metropolitan or regional municipality may retain some autonomous jurisdiction apart from the citywide government.

Often, in place of another level of government, local governments form councils of governments – essentially governmental organizations which are not empowered with any law-making or law enforcement powers. This is the case in the Atlanta metropolitan area, where the Atlanta Regional Commission (ARC) studies and makes recommendations on the impact of all major construction and development projects on the region, but generally cannot stop them. The Georgia Regional Transportation Authority (GRTA) is a true government agency of the state of Georgia, and does control some state transportation funding to the cities and counties, but otherwise has very little authority beyond this small power of the purse.

In California, a city and county's chartered city powers supersede its chartered county powers. However, because the city and county has territorial jurisdiction exclusive of other counties, it also has county officers, and the state counts it as a county for certain purposes.[10]

Despite being consolidated with New Orleans, Orleans Parish retains a nominal, sui generis status under Louisiana state law that guarantees the city's home rule. It has been effectively abolished as a distinct governmental unit. However, various parish offices remain with a degree of independence from the city government, while in other matters, the city represents the parish.[11] Originally, Orleans Parish was led by a police jury, but it had only limited authority within the City of New Orleans. In 1822, when the police jury began to be elected popularly, the New Orleans City Council was granted a veto over fiscal matters. In 1840, a second police jury was established with authority over the right bank of the Mississippi River (that is, Algiers). By 1846, the original police jury had become inactive and was abolished, consolidating the left bank with New Orleans.[12][13] In 1870, the remainder of Orleans Parish was consolidated when the city became coextensive with the parish. The city and parish have also annexed parts of neighboring Jefferson Parish.[14][15]

The case of New York City is unique, in that the city consists of five boroughs, each of which is co-extensive with a county. Each has its own district attorney; however, county-level government is essentially non-existent as all executive and legislative power is exercised by the city government throughout the five boroughs. The city, as currently constituted, was created in 1898 when the city of New York (then comprising what would become the boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx) annexed Kings County, Queens County, and Richmond County as the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island, respectively.

International equivalents

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Similar unitary authority arrangements also exist in other countries.

United Kingdom

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England has six "metropolitan counties" created in 1974: Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands, and West Yorkshire. From 1986, these metropolitan counties do not have county councils but rather joint boards for certain functions. Modern unitary authorities are similar, and are known as county boroughs in Wales. In Scotland, Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow are functionally "independent cities", though the term is not used. London is unique however, being a ceremonial county (officially known as Greater London) containing the 32 London boroughs. Enclaved within Greater London, the ancient City of London forms a distinct county, which today forms only a tiny part of what most consider to be London as a capital city, which takes up 607 square miles.

Europe

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In Germany, Berlin and Hamburg are both cities and states (the state of Bremen consists of the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven). Nearly every larger city in Germany is an independent city, like Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Munich or Dresden; Austria, where the capital of Vienna is both a city and state; France, where the capital city of Paris has been coterminous with the département of Paris since 1968.

Russia

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In Russia, there are urban districts - territories consisting of a city and nearby settlements united by one mayor's office. As a rule, urban districts are the capitals of the constituent entities of the Russia and other major cities in the region. In 2020, there were 635 urban districts.

Canada

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The Canadian province of Ontario contains several single-tier municipalities. They can be similar to American consolidated city-counties in that they are often formed by amalgamating an upper-tier municipality. However, they are functionally independent cities as, unlike a consolidated city-county, the county or region ceases to exist after being amalgamated and does not continue on a nominal basis, leaving only the unified single-tier city.[16] One example is the City of Toronto, created in 1998 from the amalgamation of the central government and the six constituent municipalities of the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto (a type of regional municipality), itself originally created in 1954.[17][18][19]

The Northern Rockies Regional Municipality in British Columbia is also a single-tier municipallity, functioning as both a regional district and a district municipality. It was formed in 2009 by amalgamating the former Northern Rockies Regional District.[20]

Tokyo

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In 1943, the City of Tokyo was amalgamated with the former Tokyo Prefecture to form the Tokyo Metropolis. The present form of Tokyo functions identically to a prefecture, having a central government along with several autonomous subdivisions. The original Tokyo City was split into 23 "special wards" which effectively function as cities. In addition, there are also 23 cities, 5 towns and 8 villages within Tokyo. Under this structure, Tokyo does not have a single mayor, but rather a governor and numerous local mayors. Currently, Tokyo is the only place designated as a metropolis.[21]

South Korea

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Seoul is a special city, while six other cities (Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Gwangju, Incheon, and Ulsan) are metropolitan cities.

Australia

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Municipalities in Australia, or "Local Government Areas" (LGAs) as they are officially known, are all single-tier entities with no government in-between them and the state or territory. However, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) does not have any LGAs. Instead, the territorial government performs all municipal functions of the city of Canberra, and thus functions as an integrated city-territory.[22]

Balances

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See also: Category:Census balances in the United States

In nine consolidated city-county governments in the United States, the formerly independent incorporated places maintain some governmental powers. In these cities, which the United States Census Bureau calls "consolidated cities", statistics are recorded both for the entire consolidated government and for the component municipalities. A part of the consolidated government is called the "balance", which the Census Bureau defines as "the consolidated city minus the semi-independent incorporated places located within the consolidated city".[3]

In Georgia, consolidations often required multiple attempts, changes in procedures, and different local laws in the state legislature. They often did not include some smaller jurisdictions. They also retained characteristics of both types of government, e.g, a sheriff as required by the Georgia Constitution.[23]

These consolidated cities are:[3]

List of consolidated city-counties

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Consolidated as a single entity

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The following consolidated city-counties are considered single entities encompassing both a city and a county, such as "City and County of San Francisco".

Merged

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The following consolidated city-counties merged a previously existing city and county and are still considered two separate entities, both a city and a county, even though the government functions have been consolidated.

With no independent municipalities

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With other independent municipalities

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  • Alaska
    • Petersburg Borough (When the borough was created in 2013, the city of Petersburg was dissolved. However, the city of Kupreanof remains a separate entity within the borough.)
  • Louisiana
    • Baton Rouge and East Baton Rouge Parish (three communities within East Baton Rouge Parish – Baker, Central and Zachary – retain separate governments. In addition, the City of Baton Rouge retains separate city limits, and its official census population only includes this area)
    • Lafayette and Lafayette Parish (In December 2018 voters amended the city-parish charter to split what was a single consolidated city-parish council into two councils — one to represent only the city of Lafayette and the other to represent the parish. The impetus for the change was the desire of city voters to take more control of city-related matters and general unease with the consequences of consolidation).
  • Tennessee
    • Nashville and Davidson County (six communities within Davidson County retain separate governments, although all participate in the metropolitan government in a two-tier system)

Note: Five cities in the Hampton Roads region of Virginia were formed by the consolidation of a city with a county: Chesapeake, Hampton, Newport News, Suffolk, and Virginia Beach (from Norfolk, Elizabeth City, Warwick, Nansemond, and Princess Anne counties, respectively). However, in each case an independent city was created and as such they are not consolidated city-counties. Instead, the Code of Virginia uses the term "consolidated city."[1][44] Similarly, Carson City was consolidated with Ormsby County, Nevada in 1969, but the county was simultaneously dissolved. The city is now a municipality independent of any county.[1]

Other

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Potentially consolidated

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  • Aurora, Colorado, split among three counties, explored the creation of a new consolidated city-county in 1996; the effort subsequently failed in a referendum. However, five years later, nearby Broomfield was successful in creating a new city-county from portions of the four counties it had been a part of. Encouraged by Broomfield's experience, an Aurora city councilman again proposed consolidation in 2006.[46] This was not accomplished in 2006 or 2007, and no bills to accomplish consolidation were introduced in the 2008 session of the Colorado legislature.
  • In 2006, a proposal was made to merge Johnson County and Wyandotte County in Kansas and the cities located in those two counties into a single consolidated city-county, with the name to be determined.[47]
  • In 2005, The Plain Dealer in Cleveland, Ohio, published a series of articles exploring the possibility of the city's merging with Cuyahoga County.[48]
  • Miami-Dade County, Florida, operates under a federated two-tier government, in which the county government operates as a superseding entity of county affairs and lower-tier incorporated municipalities operate civil and community services at the city level. However, the county provides city-level[clarification needed] police, fire-rescue, sanitation, and other services under contract to many of the municipalities within its borders.
  • The independent City of St. Louis, Missouri, and that of St. Louis County. The city of St. Louis seceded from the county in the 1870s and is not part of any county in the state of Missouri. Regional leaders have proposed several plans since 2006 to reunify the city and county, each one rejected by voters.[49]

Considered consolidation

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Formerly consolidated

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  • The City of Boston and Suffolk County, Massachusetts operated with a consolidated government for most of the twentieth century with Boston providing office space, auditors, budget, personnel and financial oversight for Suffolk County. This was not a true consolidation because three municipalities – Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop – were never annexed into Boston and remained separate jurisdictions within Suffolk County; however, the City of Boston held complete control of the county by law. The special relationship between Boston and Suffolk County ended in 1999 as part of the gradual abolition of county governments through much of the state with all county employees and powers transferred to Commonwealth of Massachusetts control. The only remaining powers and duties for the City of Boston in regards to the county is ceremonial in which the Suffolk County Register of Deeds is issued the oath of office at the start of a term as well as calls for a meeting to hold a special election to fill the office should there be a failure to elect someone to the office or should a vacancy occur.
  • From the 17th century to 1898, New York City was coterminous with New York County and was often referred to as the "City and County of New York". Both were coterminous with Manhattan until 1874, when the city and county annexed parts of Westchester County that would become the West Bronx, later annexing the remainder of the future Bronx. Upon consolidation in 1898, New York County was coterminous and consolidated with the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, while the other boroughs were consolidated with their own respective counties. The Bronx was separated from New York County in 1914 to form its own Bronx County, and since then, each of the five boroughs of New York City is coterminous and consolidated with a county of New York state.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g "Cities 101 -- Consolidations". National League of Cities. December 14, 2016.
  2. ^ States, Counties, and Statistically Equivalent Entities, from the United States Census Bureau
  3. ^ a b c Population Estimates Geography Archived 2010-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, United States Census Bureau, 2006-06-19. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
  4. ^ "Parish Government Structure - Police Jury Association of Louisiana". www.lpgov.org. Retrieved April 22, 2024.
  5. ^ Alaska's Local Government, from Alaska Municipal League
  6. ^ Governance in Anchorage
  7. ^ "Glossary". Washington, D.C.: United States Census Bureau Geography Program. April 11, 2022. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  8. ^ Cal. Const. art. XI § 6
  9. ^ Kate Linebaugh, Threats to Town Halls Stir Voter Backlash, The Wall Street Journal, June 8, 2011
  10. ^ Eigerman, Jared (1999). "California Counties: Second-Rate Localities or Ready-Made Regional Governments?". Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly. 26 (3): 667–668. ISSN 0094-5617.
  11. ^ Richardson 1961, pp. 12–13, 55.
  12. ^ a b Richardson 1961, pp. 7–10.
  13. ^ "Records of the Orleans Parish Police Juries". New Orleans City Archives & Special Collections. New Orleans Public Library. February 17, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  14. ^ Richardson 1961, pp. 10–11.
  15. ^ An act to extend the limits of the Parish of Orleans, and to change the boundaries of the Parishes of Orleans and Jefferson, and to consolidate the cities of New Orleans and Jefferson, and to provide for the government of the city of New Orleans and the administration of the affairs thereof… (7). Louisiana State Legislature. March 16, 1870. pp. 30–49. Retrieved December 6, 2024 – via HathiTrust.
  16. ^ Municipal Act, 2001, S.O. 2001, c. 25 (Municipal Act, 2001 at Ontario e-Laws)
  17. ^ City of Toronto Act, 1997, S.O. 1997, c. 2 (City of Toronto Act, 1997 at Ontario e-Laws)
  18. ^ City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, Sch. A (City of Toronto Act, 2006 at Ontario e-Laws)
  19. ^ Lesch, Matthew (2018). "Legacies of the Megacity: Toronto's Amalgamation 20 Years Later". Institute on Municipal Finance and Governance. University of Toronto. Retrieved December 21, 2024.
  20. ^ "Order of the Lieutenant Governor in Council (Order in Council No. 033)" (PDF). Province of British Columbia. January 29, 2009. p. 3. Retrieved September 20, 2014. The class of the municipality is a district municipality.
  21. ^ "Local Government in Japan" (PDF). Council of Local Authorities for International Relations. pp. 41–43. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2007.
  22. ^ "Facts and figures: Australia". Local Government Information Unit. Retrieved December 21, 2024.
  23. ^ Arnold Fleischmann and Jennifer Custer, "Columbus/Muscogee County, Georgia," in Suzanne M. Leland and Kurt Thurmaier, CASE STUDIES IN CITY-CONSOLIDATION (Armonk, NY, M.E. Sharpe, 2004), 46-59; Arnold Fleischmann, "Regionalism and City-County-County Consolidation in Small Metro Areas," STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT REVIEW 32:3 (Fall 2000): 213-226.
  24. ^ "Anchorage, Alaska: The Official Municipality of Anchorage, Alaska website". Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  25. ^ a b "Colorado Municipal Incorporations". State of Colorado, Department of Personnel & Administration, Colorado State Archives. December 1, 2004. Retrieved November 24, 2006.
  26. ^ "City and County of Broomfield - Official Website - Official Website". Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  27. ^ "[T]he city and county of Denver ... did not come into being until the day of the issuing of the Governor's proclamation, on December 1, 1902". City Council of the City and County of Denver v. Board of Commissioners of Adams County, 77 P. 858, 861 (1904).
  28. ^ "Government". Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  29. ^ Individual State Descriptions: 2012[1], United States Census of Governments
  30. ^ "HB 1171 - Macon-Bibb County; create and incorporate new political body corporate". Archived from the original on October 30, 2012.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "City-County Consolidation Proposals, 1921–Present" (PDF). National Association of Counties. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
  32. ^ "The Effects on City-County Consolidation" (PDF). ai.org. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
  33. ^ a b c d e Consolidation pass for Macon and Bibb county in the 2012 vote.Consolidation of City and County Governments: Attempts in Five Cities Archived January 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine[2] January 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2010-09-14.
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  35. ^ "Welcome to TPCG". Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  36. ^ a b Kent Moreland. "Map of Trousdale County". Hartsville-Trousdale County Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  37. ^ Website of the Community of Anaconda
  38. ^ Website of Lexington-Fayette Urban County Government Archived March 28, 1997, at the Wayback Machine
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  40. ^ "City of Indianapolis / Marion County". indygov.org. Archived from the original on January 26, 2003. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  41. ^ Camden County Board of Commissioners (February 10, 2006). "Ordinance of Camden County Regarding Exercise of Powers, Duties, Functions, Rights, Privileges and Immunities of a City Pursuant to North Carolina General Statute 153a – 471". Camden County Government. Archived from the original on July 31, 2007.
  42. ^ "Government". Greeley County, Kansas. February 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  43. ^ "LouisvilleKy.gov". Archived from the original on March 26, 2017. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  44. ^ "§ 15.2-3521. Proposed consolidated city; notice of motion; service and publication". Code of Virginia. Virginia Law - Legislative Information System. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  45. ^ "Welcome to NYC.gov - City of New York". Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  46. ^ City and County of Aurora?[permanent dead link‍] by J.C. O'Connell. The Aurora Daily Sun & Sentinel, January 30, 2006.
  47. ^ Johnson-Wyandotte merger? by Jesse Truesdale. The [Bonner Springs] Chieftain, February 2, 2006.
  48. ^ A Region Divided Archived 2007-02-10 at the Wayback Machine. Special series of The [Cleveland] Plain Dealer, published throughout 2005.
  49. ^ St. Louis Five-Year Consolidated Plan Strategy 2006-2010
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  51. ^ "House Bill 402". 1999 Regular Session. Maryland General Assembly. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021.
  52. ^ Opinion: Baltimore City-County Merger Idea Offers False Hope, Maryland Matters, June 13, 2019
  53. ^ "It's Time to Change". One Buffalo. Archived from the original on 16 April 2007.
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  59. ^ "Alaska Division of Community Advocacy". Archived from the original on 21 December 2004. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  60. ^ "Voters reject metro government in Lincoln Co". WATE. 8 February 2008. Archived from the original on 13 December 2011. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
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  62. ^ Kirby, Cassondra (3 November 2004). "Article: Voters in Franklin and Frankfort counties, Ky., reject government merger". Lexington Herald-Leader. Lexington, KY. Archived from the original on 17 March 2009. Retrieved 8 June 2010 – via AccessMyLibrary.
  63. ^ "Microsoft Word - All CONSLDLS 2006bev _3_.doc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
  64. ^ Mishak, Michael (May 24, 2009). "Why consolidating city and county governments isn't a silver bullet for waste". Las Vegas Sun. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  65. ^ "Stephens Floats City Merger Idea". Arkansas Business. 5 December 2002.
  66. ^ Miller, Kate (15 March 2002). "Business Backs Consolidated Government". Memphis Business Journal.
  67. ^ "The Commercial Appeal". The Commercial Appeal. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  68. ^ "Muncie & Delaware County Reorganization Committee". Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  69. ^ Allan v. Kennard, 81 Neb. 289, 298 (April 10, 1908) ("...it is, to quote the brief, 'a fact, common to the knowledge of all men that for years there has been a constant growing demand in Omaha and Douglas county [sic] for a merger and consolidation of city and county offices in the sense that similar duties pertaining to the city and county affairs should be performed by one and the same officers;' that such consolidation has been liad with reference to the office of city and county treasurer, and that the result has been satisfactory, and there is a demand for further consolidation.").
  70. ^ "City nixes Omaha-Douglas County board merger plan". Lincoln Journal-Star. Lee Enterprises. February 14, 2006. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
  71. ^ "Government services consolidation proposed" (PDF). Unicameral Update. Vol. XXXIV, no. 8. Lincoln, NE: Unicameral Information Office, Nebraska Legislature. February 25, 2011. p. 8. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
  72. ^ "LB344 Actions". Nebraska Legislature. April 18, 2012. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
  73. ^ "City of Orlando / Orange County Consolidation of Services Study Commission". Archived from the original on 10 December 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2006.
  74. ^ "Paducah, McCracken County residents reject metro merger". The Henderson Gleaner. Henderson, Kentucky. Associated Press. 7 November 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
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  78. ^ a b Rawlins, Elizabeth (15 February 2018). "The Investigation Begins: State lawmakers looking at consolidating Savannah, Chatham County". wtoc.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  79. ^ Rawlins, Elizabeth (22 February 2018). "WTOC Investigates: Could consolidation save Savannah, Chatham County taxpayers millions?". wtoc.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  80. ^ McDermott, Kevin (12 June 2017). "Krewson, Stenger back latest push for city-county coordination". stltoday.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
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  83. ^ Troy, Tom (4 March 2004). "Skepticism greets 'Unigov' summit". The Toledo Blade.
  84. ^ Eckert, Richard V. (2 May 2005). Shawnee County Government and Consolidation Report (PDF). Shawnee County, Kansas.

Further reading

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