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China–North Korea border

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China–North Korea border
Inscription stone marking the border between China and North Korea in Jilin
Characteristics
Entities China
 North Korea
Length1,352 kilometers (840 mi)
History
Established9 September 1948
Democratic People's Republic of Korea established
Current shape20 March 1964
TreatiesProtocols on the Sino-Korean Border
Chinese and North Korean boundary markers

The China–North Korea border[a] is an international border separating China and North Korea, extending from Korea Bay in the west to a tripoint with Russia in the east. The total length of the border is 1,352 kilometers (840 mi).[1] The current border was created by two secret treaties signed between China and North Korea in 1962 and 1964.

Geography

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Sino-Korean Friendship Bridge (right), linking Dandong with North Korea

From west to east, the two countries are divided by three significant geographical features: the Yalu River, Paektu Mountain, and the Tumen River.[2]

Dandong, in the Liaoning Province of China, on the Yalu River delta, is the largest city on the border.[3] On the other side of the river is the city of Sinuiju in North Pyongan Province, North Korea. The two cities are situated on the Yalu river delta at the western end of the border, near the Yellow Sea. Their waterfronts face each other and are connected by the Sino-Korean Friendship Bridge.

There are 205 islands on the Yalu River. A 1962 border treaty between North Korea and China split the islands according to which ethnic group were living on each island. North Korea possesses 127 and China 78. Due to the division criteria, some islands such as Hwanggumpyong Island belong to North Korea even though they are on the Chinese side of the river. Both countries have navigation rights on the river, including in the delta.

The source of the Yalu River is Heaven Lake on Paektu Mountain, which is considered the birthplace of the Korean and Manchu peoples. This lake is also the source of the Tumen River which forms the eastern portion of the border.

History

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Pre-modern

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Historically the border areas have been contested by successive Chinese and Korean polities, though the current border utilising the Yalu-Tumen rivers appears to have been in place by the mid 15th century.[4][5] The Manchu (Qing) dynasty of China managed to consolidate control of north-east China (Manchuria) and establish a nebulous 'tributary' rule over Joseon Korea.[5] In 1712 the Chinese Kangxi Emperor and Joseon King Sukjong authorised a border mission to analyse the border alignment in the vicinity of the Yalu-Tumen headwaters on Mount Paektu.[4][6] A pillar was erected indicating the border alignment in this section, and a demilitarised neutral zone set along the frontier.[4][6] In 1875 China, fearful of the Russia presence to the east, occupied its section of the neutral zone.[6] A Chinese-Korean boundary team surveyed the Mt Paektu area in 1885–87, however there were disputes over whether the pillar had been moved, and the two sides were unable to agree precisely which of the several headwater streams should form the frontier.[4][7] In 1889 the Chinese unilaterally demarcated a frontier in the area, marking it with a series of posts, however these were later destroyed by the Koreans.[4] Korea also made periodic claims to Korean-inhabited lands (Jiandao) north of the Tumen.[4]

In the early 20th century Korea came under the increasing influence of Japan, and by 1905 it was deemed a Japanese protectorate.[4] In 1909, China and Japan signed the Gando Convention, whereby Korea was made to renounce any claims north of the Yalu-Tumen line in return for extensive Chinese concessions to Japan.[4] In the Mount Paektu area the 1712 pillar was confirmed as the border marker, and the Shiyi/Sogul headwater stream utilised up to the Tumen border.[4] The following year Japan formally annexed Korea.[8]

Current border

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Main article: Sino–North Korean Border Treaty

Korea achieved its independence after the 1945 surrender of Japan and subsequently divided into two, Chairman Mao and the Communist Party (CPC) assumed rule over China after it won the Chinese Civil War in 1949.

In 1962, North Korea and China signed a border treaty in secret which fixed the boundary line along the Yalu and Tumen rivers, with the middle overland section running across Mount Paektu and through Heaven Lake.[5][9] A subsequent protocol in 1964 allocated the numerous riverine islets, granting 264 to North Korea and 187 to China.[4] These two treaties define the modern border between the two countries.

Trade and contact

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The Beijing–Pyongyang passenger train passes Dandong

North Korea's border with China has been described as its "lifeline to the outside world."[10] Much of the China-North Korea trade goes through the port of Dandong.[2]

Chinese cell phone service has been known to extend as far as 10 km (6 mi) into Korean territory, which has led to the development of a black market for Chinese cell phones in the border regions. International calls are strictly forbidden in North Korea, and violators put themselves at considerable peril to acquire such phones.[11]

Tourists in Dandong can take speedboat rides along the North Korean side of the Amnok River and up its tributaries.[12]

A common wedding day event for some Chinese couples involve renting boats, putting life preservers on over their wedding clothes, and going to the North Korean border to have wedding photos taken.[13]

Memory cards and teddy bears are reportedly among the most popular items for North Koreans shopping in Dandong.[14]

Crossings

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The Ji'an Railway Bridge between Ji'an, Jilin Province and Manpo, Chagang Province of North Korea.
China-North Korea Border Crossings[15]
Name Bordering
Chinese town 		Bordering
Korean town 		Open to
third
country
nationals 		Railway crossing Notes
Hwanggumpyong Island Tangchi,
Zhenxing, Dandong		 Sindo,
North Pyongan Province		 No No Planned
New Yalu River Bridge Tangchi,
Zhenxing, Dandong		 Sinuiju,
North Pyongan		 Yes No Under construction
Yalu River Broken Bridge Tangchi,
Zhenxing, Dandong		 Sinuiju,
North Pyongan		 No No Defunct
Sino-Korean Friendship Bridge Tangchi,
Zhenxing, Dandong		 Sinuiju,
North Pyongan		 Yes Yes Opened[b]
Yalu River Broken Wooden Pontoon Zhenzhu Subdistrict,
Zhen'an, Dandong		 Sinuiju,
North Pyongan		 No Yes Defunct
Hekou Broken Bridge Changdian,
Kuandian, Dandong		 Sakchu County,
North Pyongan		 No No Defunct
Upper Hekou Railway Bridge Changdian,
Kuandian, Dandong		 Sakju,
North Pyongan		 No Yes Opened
Ji'an Railway Bridge Ji'an City,
Tonghua		 Manpo,
Chagang		 No Yes Opened
Ji'an Road Bridge Ji'an City,
Tonghua		 Manpo,
Chagang		 No No Opened
Chagang Samgang Railway Bridge Yunfeng Lake,
Ji'an, Tonghua		 Manpo,
Chagang		 No Yes Defunct
Kuunbong Railway Bridge Yunfeng Lake,
Ji'an, Tonghua		 Chasong,
Chagang		 No Yes Defunct
Linjiang Yalu River Bridge Linjiang City,
Baishan		 Chunggang,
Chagang		 No No Opened
Changbai-Hyesan Bridge Changbai,
Baishan		 Hyesan,
Ryanggang Province		 No No Opened
Karim Bridge Ershidaogou,
Changbai, Baishan		 Pochon,
Ryanggang		 No No Defunct
Samjiyon crossing Erdaobaihe,
Antu, Yanbian		 Samjiyon,
Ryanggang		 No No Near Paektu Mountain
Guchengli Bridge Chongshan,
Helong, Yanbian		 Taehongdan,
Ryanggang		 No No Opened
Nanping Bridge Nanping,
Helong, Yanbian		 Musan,
North Hamgyong		 No No Opened
Sanhe Bridge Sanhe,
Longjing, Yanbian		 Hoeryong,
North Hamgyong		 No No Opened
Chaokai Bridge Kaishantun,
Longjing, Yanbian		 Sambong,
Onsong, North Hamgyong		 No No Opened
Tumen Border Railway Bridge Tumen City,
Yanbian		 Namyang,
Onsong, North Hamgyong		 Yes Yes Opened
Tumen Border Road Bridge Tumen City,
Yanbian		 Namyang,
Onsong, North Hamgyong		 Yes No Opened
Liangshui Broken Bridge Liangshui,
Tumen, Yanbian		 Onsong,
North Hamgyong		 No No Defunct
Hunyung Railway Bridges Ying'an,
Hunchun, Yanbian		 Hunyung,
Kyongwon, North Hamgyong		 No Yes Defunct
Shatuozi Bridge Sanjiazi,
Hunchun, Yanbian		 Kyongwon,
North Hamgyong		 No No Opened
Quanhe-Yunting Bridge Jingxin (敬信镇),
Hunchun, Yanbian		 Wonjong,
Sonbong,
Rason		 Yes No

Opened[c]

  1. ^ Chinese: 中朝边境; pinyin: Zhōng–Cháo Biānjìng, Korean: 조선민주주의인민공화국-중화인민공화국 국경; Hanja: 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國-中華人民共和國 國境; MR: Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk – Chunghwa Inmin Konghwaguk Kukkyŏng
  2. ^ There are four weekly trains with hard and soft sleepers from Beijing to Pyongyang via the Sino–Korean Friendship Bridge, as well as a weekly carriage attached to the Vladivostok train from Moscow, via Harbin, Shenyang, and Dandong.[16]
  3. ^ Special entry permits are required to enter Rason instead of the standard DPRK visa.[17]

Border security

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The border at the Amnok River delta near Dandong in 2012

In 2005, the border between North Korea and China was described as "porous".[10]

The Chinese government transferred responsibility for managing the border to the army from the police in 2003.[18] Chinese authorities began building wire fences "on major defection routes along the Tumen River" in 2003.[19] Beginning in September 2006,[19] China erected a 20-kilometre (12 mi) fence on the border near Dandong, along stretches of the Yalu River delta with lower banks and narrower width.[2] The concrete and barbed wire fence ranged in height from 8 feet (2.4 m) to 15 feet (4.6 m).[19]

In 2007 a U.S. official stated that China was building more "fences and installations at key border outposts".[20] In the same year, it was reported that North Korea had started building a fence along a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) stretch of its side of the Yalu River, and had also built a road to guard the area.[21][22]

In 2011 it was reported that China was building fences 4 metres (13 ft) high near Dandong, and that 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) of this new fencing had been built. It was also reported that China was reinforcing patrols, and that new patrol posts were being built on higher ground to give wider visibility over the area. According to a resident of the area: "It's the first time such strong border fences are being erected here. Looks like it is related to the unstable situation in North Korea." The resident also added that previously "anybody could cross if they really wanted" as the fence had only been 10 feet (3.0 m) with no barbed wire.[23][24]

In 2014, an Australian journalist who visited Dandong reported a low level of border security.[25][26] In 2015, fencing was reported as the exception rather than the rule.[27] In 2015, a photojournalist who traveled along the Chinese side of the border commented that fencing was rare and that it would be easy to cross the Amnok river when it was frozen. The same report noted friendly contact between people on opposite sides of the border.[28] In 2018, a photojournalist drove along the border and described it as "mile after mile of nothing, guarded by no-one".[29]

Railway bridge over the Tumen River

In 2015, a single rogue North Korean soldier killed four ethnic Korean citizens of China who lived along the border of China with North Korea.[30]

Rumours of Chinese troop mobilizations on the border frequently circulate in times of heightened tension on the Korean peninsula. According to scholar Adam Cathcart, these rumours are hard to substantiate and hard to interpret.[31]

A leaked China Mobile document that went viral on Chinese social media on 7 December 2017 allegedly revealed Chinese government plans to construct five "refugee settlement points" along the border to North Korea in Changbai county and Jilin province.[32][33] This was apparently in preparation for a large influx of North Korean refugees if the Kim regime collapsed in a potential conflict with the United States. The Guardian quoted the document: "Due to cross-border tensions … the [Communist] party committee and government of Changbai county has proposed setting up five refugee camps in the county."[34]

Border control was significantly strengthened in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. North Korea closed its border with China in January 2020. By August 2020, the regime had established a 1–2 kilometer buffer zone in front of the border where official permits were required to enter; trespassers would be "fired at without warning".[35][36] In May 2023, newly constructed double walls and guard posts were observed along hundreds of kilometers of the border, according to satellite photos published by Reuters.[37]

Maps

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Coastal border region (Korea Bay)[a]
Southern/Western border region[b]
Northern/Eastern border region[a]
US Department of State map of the China-Korea border
Historical English-language maps of the China-Korea (PRC-DPRK) border from west to east (south to north) from the International Map of the World produced by the US Army's Army Map Service and the Defense Mapping Agency, mid-20th century. The map on the far right was produced by the US Department of State in 1962, and shows the former disputed zone around Mount Paektu.

Notes

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  1. ^ a b from map: "DELINEATION OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MUST NOT BE CONSIDERED AUTHORITATIVE"
  2. ^ from map: "THE REPRESENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES ON THIS MAP IS NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE."

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Korea, North". CIA World Factbook. 23 August 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
  2. ^ a b c Nanto, Dick K.; Manyin, Mark E. (2010). China-North Korea Relations (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
  3. ^ Rogers, Jenny. "New group reaches out to China Archived 2012-10-06 at the Wayback Machine." Gold Coast Bulletin. October 2, 2012. Retrieved on October 23, 2012.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "China's Impact on Korean Peninsula Unification and Questions for the Senate". U.S. Government Printing Office. 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  5. ^ a b c Gomà Pinilla, Daniel (23 April 2007). "Border Disputes between China and North Korea". China Perspectives. 2004 (2). doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.806. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  6. ^ a b c Zabrovskaya (2007). "A Brief History of the Sino-Korean Border from the 18th to the 20th century". Korea Yearbook, 2007: Politics, Economy and Society. BRILL.
  7. ^ Song, Nianshen (2017). "The Journey towards "No Man's Land": Interpreting the China-Korea Borderland within Imperial and Colonial Contexts". The Journal of Asian Studies. 76 (4): 1035–1058. doi:10.1017/S002191181700078X. S2CID 164619442.
  8. ^ Caprio, Mark (2009). Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. University of Washington Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9780295990408.
  9. ^ Fravel, M. Taylor (2005-10-01). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 56347789.
  10. ^ a b Onishi, Norimitsu. "Tension, Desperation: The China-North Korean Border Archived 2017-05-06 at the Wayback Machine." The New York Times. October 22, 2006. Retrieved on October 23, 2012.
  11. ^ "North Korea: On the net in world's most secretive nation (BBC)". BBC News. 10 December 2012. Archived from the original on 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2018-07-21.
  12. ^ "A trip to the North Korea-China border, in photos". NK News. 29 May 2015. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  13. ^ Hessler, Peter (2006). Oracle Bones. New York et al.: Harper Perennial. pp. 62. ISBN 9780060826581.
  14. ^ "Thanks for the memory cards; North Koreans return from China". www.atimes.com. 4 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  15. ^ "Tracing China-DPRK Border Crossings - Mansudae Korea". Archived from the original on 2020-09-18. Retrieved 2020-07-29.
  16. ^ "Trans-Siberian Railway Tours" Accessed 2014-05-25
  17. ^ "North Korea Fast-Tracks Entry Visas For Rason SEZ". 2016-09-26. Archived from the original on 2019-01-04. Retrieved 2019-01-04.
  18. ^ Foley, James. “China Steps Up Security on North Korean Border”, Jane's Intelligence Review, 1 November 2003.
  19. ^ a b c Ng Gan Guan, China Erects Fence Along N. Korea Border Archived 2018-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, Associated Press (October 16, 2006).
  20. ^ "www.dailynk.com "China Troops Increase at North Korean Border"". 13 November 2008. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  21. ^ www.edmontonsun.com "North Korea building fence on China border"
  22. ^ "Report: N. Korea building fence to keep people in". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
  23. ^ Foster, Peter and agencies, Beijing. "China builds higher fences over fears of instability in North Korea Archived 2018-05-02 at the Wayback Machine." The Daily Telegraph. March 30, 2011. Retrieved on October 26, 2012.
  24. ^ "China boosts North Korea border fence Archived 2014-10-21 at the Wayback Machine." The China Post. Thursday March 31, 2011. Retrieved on October 26, 2012.
  25. ^ Hardy, Elle (18 September 2014). "Comment: The absurdities faced by North Korean refugees in China". SBS News. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  26. ^ "Comment: The absurdities faced by North Korean refugees in China". Archived from the original on 2014-10-11. Retrieved 2014-10-07.
  27. ^ Rob York (25 February 2015). "The myth of a sealed China-N. Korea border". NK News. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
  28. ^ "A trip to the North Korea-China border, in photos". NK News. 29 May 2015. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  29. ^ Sagolj, Damir (15 April 2018). "A road trip on the edge of North Korea". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  30. ^ "Runaway N. Korean soldier kills four Chinese: reports". 2016-09-20. Archived from the original on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  31. ^ Cathcart, Adam (20 October 2017). "Tigers in the Haze: Chinese Troops on the Border with North Korea in the 'April Crisis'". Jamestown. China Brief, Jamestown University. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
  32. ^ Feng[1], Liu[2], Mitchell[3], Emily[1], Xinning[2], Tom[3] (10 December 2017). "US-North Korea tensions fuel fears on Chinese border". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Perlez, Jane (2017-12-11). "Fearing the Worst, China Plans Refugee Camps on North Korean Border". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-12-13. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
  34. ^ Phillips, Tom (2017-12-12). "China building network of refugee camps along border with North Korea". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2017-12-13. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
  35. ^ "North Korea issues shoot-to-kill orders at Chinese border to prevent coronavirus entering: US". The Straits Times. 11 September 2020.
  36. ^ "North Korea's mistranslated 'shoot-to-kill' border protection order | East Asia Forum". 26 February 2021.
  37. ^ Smith, Josh; Kiyada, Sudev (27 May 2023). "North Korea spent the pandemic building a huge border wall". Reuters. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
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