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Feather cloak

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Feather cloaks have been used by several cultures. It constituted noble and royal attire in § Hawaii and other Polynesian regions. It is a mythical bird-skin object that imparts power of flight upon the Gods in § Germanic mythology and legend, including the § Swan maidens account. In medieval Ireland, the chief poet (filí or ollam) was entitled to wear a feather cloak.

The feather robe or cloak (Chinese: yuyi; Japanese: hagoromo; 羽衣) was considered the clothing of the Immortals (xian; 仙/僊), and features in swan maiden tale types where a tennyo (Japanese: 天女 "heavenly woman") robbed of her clothing or "feather robe" and becomes bound to live on mortal earth. However, the so-called "feather robe" of the Chinese and Japanese celestial woman came to be regarded as silk clothing or scarves around the shoulder in subsequent literature and iconography.

Hawaii

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Main article: ʻahu ʻula
Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena in her cloak.
Feather cape[a]
—Display at Keauhou, Hawaii

Elaborate feather cloaks called ʻahu ʻula[2] were created by early Hawaiians, and usually reserved for the use of high chiefs and aliʻi (royalty).[3]

The scarlet honeycreeper ʻiʻiwi (Vestiaria coccinea) was the main source of red feathers.[2][4][5] Yellow feathers were collected in small amounts each time from the mostly black ʻōʻō (Moho spp.) or the mamo (Drepanis pacifica).[5][2][8]

Another strictly regal item was the kāhili, a symbolic "staff of state" or standard, consisting of pole with plumage attached to the top of it.[11][3][5][12] The Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena in her portrait (cf. fig. right) is depicted holding a kāhili while wearing a feather cloak.[13] She would typically wear a feather cloak with a feather coronet and she would match these with a pair of pāʻū ('skirts'[14])[15] which ordinarily would be barkcloth skirt,[16] however, she also had a magnificent yellow feather skirt made for her, which featured in her funerary services.[15][17][18][b]

Other famous examples include:

  • Kamehameha's feather cloak - made entirely of the golden-yellow feather of the mamo, inherited by Kamehameha I. King Kalākaua displayed this artefact to emphasize his own legitimate authority.[19][20]
  • Kiwalao's feather cloak - King Kīwalaʻō's cloak, captured by half-brother Kamehameha I who slew him in 1782. It symbolized leadership and was worn by chieftains during times of war.[21]
  • Liloa's kāʻei - sash of King Līloa of the island of Hawaii[22]

Hawaiian mythology

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A mythical enemy-incinerating kapa (barkcloth) cape, retold as a feather skirt in one telling, occurs in Hawaiian mythology. In the tradition regarding the hero ʻAukelenuiaʻīkū,[c] the hero's grandmother Moʻoinanea who is matriarch of the divine lizards (moʻo akua, or simply moʻo) gives him her severed tail, which transforms into a cape (or kapa lehu, i.e. tapa) that turns enemies into ashes, and sends him off on a quest to woo his destined wife, Nāmaka. Nāmaka (who is predicted to attack him when he visits) will be immune to the cape's powers. She is also a granddaughter or descendant of the lizard, and has been given the lizard's battle pāʻū (skirt) and kāhili (feathered staff), also conferred with power to destroy enemy into ashes.[23] In one retelling, Moʻoinanea (Ka-moʻo-inanea) gives her grandson ʻAukele her "feather skirt" and kāhili which "by shaking.. can reduce his enemies to ashes".[24][25]

A commentator has argued that the feather garment of Nāhiʻenaʻena was regarded as imbued with the apotropaic "powers of a woman's genitals", reminiscent of the mythic pāʻū which Hiʻiaka was given by Pele.[27]

Māori

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It has been noted there is a pan-Polynesian culture of valuing the use of feathers in garments, especially of red colour, and there had even existed ancient trade in feathers. While various featherwork apparel were widespread across Polynesia, feather capes were limited to Hawaiʻi and New Zealand.[28]

The Māori feather cloak or kahu huruhuru are known for their rectangular-shaped examples.[d][29][30] The most prized were the red feathers which in Māori culture signified chiefly rank,[31][29] and were taken from the kaka parrot to make the kahu kura which literally means 'red cape'.[29][e]

The feather garment continues to be utilized as symbolic of rank or respect.[35][36]

Brazil

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Main article: Tupinambà cape

The feather cloak or cape was traditional to the coastal Tupi people, notably the Tupinambá. The cape was called guará-abucu[37] (var. gûaráabuku[38]) in Tupi–Guarani, so called from the red plumage of guará (Eudocimus ruber, scarlet ibis) and not only did it have a hood at the top,[39] but it was meant to cover the body to simulate becoming a bird,[40] and even included a buttocks piece called enduaps.[37] These feather capes were worn by Tupian shamans or pajé (var. paîé) during rituals, and clearly held religious or sacred meaning.[41][40] The cape was also worn in battle,[42] but it has been clarified that the warrior as well as his victim were deliberately dressed as birds as executioners and the offering in ritual sacrifices.[40]

Germanic

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A bird-hamr (pl. hamir) or feather cloak that enable the wearers to take the form of, or become, birds are widespread in Germanic mythology and legend. The goddess Freyja was known for her "feathered or falcon cloak" (fjaðrhamr, valshamr), which could be borrowed by others to use, and the jötunn Þjazi may have had something similar, referred to as an arnarhamr (eagle-shape or coat).[43][45]

The term hamr has the dual meaning of "skin" or "shape",[46] and in this context, fjaðrhamr has been translated variously as "feather-skin",[47][48] "feather-fell",[49] "feather-cloak",[50] "feather coat",[51] "feather-dress",[52] "coat of feathers",[53] or form, shape or guise.[54][55][56][f][g]

The topic is often discussed in the broader sense of "ability to fly", inclusive of Óðinn's ability to transform into bird shape, and Wayland's[h] flying contraption.[43] This wider categorization may be necessary, since in the case of Óðinn (and Suttungr) resorting to the arnarhamr ("eagle cloak"), while some have taken this to mean literal use of a garment,[60][61] it has become commonplace to take it as metaphoric, and construe it to mean "changed into eagle-shape"[65] perhaps by magic.[68] Also, Völundr's "wing" is not a "feather cloak" per se, but only likened to it (cf. § Wayland).

Gods and jötnar

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Gotlandic image stone believed to depict Odin in the form of an eagle (note the eagle's beard), Gunnlöð holding the Mead of Poetry, and Suttungr.

In Norse mythology, goddesses Freyja (as aforementioned) and Frigg each own a feather cloak that imparts the ability of flight.[56][59]

Freyja is not attested as using the cloak herself,[70] however she lent her fjaðrhamr ("feather cloak") to Loki so he could fly to Jötunheimr after Þórr's hammer went missing in Þrymskviða,[71] and to rescue Iðunn from the jötunn Þjazi in Skáldskaparmál who had abducted the goddess while in an arnarhamr ("eagle shape").[45][54][74] The latter episode is also attested in the poem Haustlöng, where Freyja's garment is referred to as hauks flugbjalfa "hawk's flying-fur",[75] or "hawk's flight-skin"[76][77] and the jötunn employs a gemlishamr "cloak/shape of eagle".[78]

Loki also uses Frigg's feather cloak to journey to Geirröðargarða ("Geirröðr's courts"[80] in Jötunheimr[82]), referred to here as a valshamr ("falcon-feathered cloak").[85]

Óðinn is described as being able to change his shape into that of animals, as attested in the Ynglinga saga.[86][87] Furthermore, in the story of the Mead of Poetry from Skáldskaparmál,[88][62] although Óðinn changes attire into an "eagle skin" (arnarhamr), this is interpreted as assuming an "eagle-form" or "shape", especially by later scholars;[65] meanwhile, scholar Ruggerini argues Óðinn can use shape-shifting magic without the need of such skin, in contrast to the jötunn Suttung, who must put on his "eagle skin" (arnarhamr)) in order to pursue him.[68][i]

Völsunga saga

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Main article: Hljod

In the Völsunga saga, the wife of King Rerir is unable to conceive a child and so the couple prays to Oðinn and Frigg for help. Hearing this, Frigg then sends one of her maids (Hljóð, possibly a valkyrja) wearing a krákuhamr (crow-cloak) to the king with a magic apple that, when eaten, made the queen pregnant with her son Völsung.[89][90][91]

Swan maidens

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There were also the three swan-maidens, also described as valkyrjur, and owned sets of "swan's garments" or "swan cloaks" (álptarhamir; sing.:álptarhamr), and these gave the wearer the form of a swan.[92][93] And the maidens were wedded to Wayland the Smith and his brothers, according to the prose prologue to Völundarkviða ("Lay of Wayland").[97]

This bears similarity to the account of the eight valkyrjur with hamir in Helreið Brynhildar.[98][99][93]

Wayland

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Wayland's smithy in the centre, Niðhad's daughter to the left, and Niðhad's dead sons hidden to the right of the smithy. Between the girl and the smithy, Wayland can be seen in a fjaðrhamr flying away.

The master smith Wayland (Old Norse: Völundr) uses some sort of device to fly away and escape from King Niðhad after he is hamstrung, as described in the Eddic lay Völundarkviða.[95][101] The lay has Völundr saying he has regained his "webbed feet" which soldiers had taken away from him, and with it he is able to soar into air. This is explained as a circumlocution for him recovering a magical artifact (perhaps a ring), which allows him to transform into a swan or such waterfowl with webbed feet.[95][101] An alternate interpretation is that the text here should not be construed as "feet" but "wings" ("feather coat or artificial wings"[102]), which gave him ability to fly away.[104][105][j]

The second "wing" scenario coincides with the version of the story given in Þiðreks saga, where Völundr's brother Egill shot birds and collected plumage for him, providing him with the raw material for crafting a set of wings,[95] and this latter story is also corroborated on depictions on the panels of the 8th-century whale-bone Franks Casket.[95][103][107]

In the Þiðreks saga Wayland (here Old Norse: Velent)'s device is referred to as "wings" or rather a single "wing" (Old Norse: flygill, a term borrowed from the German Flügel[108]) but is described as resembling a fjaðrhamr, supposedly flayed from a griffin, or vulture, or an ostrich.[k][l][m][113][112][114] Modern commentators suggest that the Low German source[117] originally just meant "wings", but the Norse translators took license to interpret it as being just like a "feather cloak".[109][107] In the saga version, Velent not only requested his brother Egill to obtain the plumage material[118] (as aforementioned) but also asks Egill to wear the wings first to perform a test flight.[112][107] Afterwards Velent himself escapes with the wings, and instructs Egil to shoot him, but aiming for his blood sack prop to fake his death.[112]

Metaphorical sense

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As already noted, hamr could mean either a physical "skin" or the abstract "shape",[46] and though on first blush, Freyja seems to have a (literally) a "feather cloak" she could lend to others,[43] Larrington for instance glosses the feather cloak not as a 'skin' but an 'attribute' of the goddess which gives her ability to fly.[58] Vincent Samson explains the hamr as the physical aspect taken on by a mobile (or transmigrating) soul[n] when undergoing animal transformation, noting that François-Xavier Dillmann defines hamr as "external form of the soul".[o][119]

Germanic translations of Celtic material

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The Breton lai of Bisclavret was translated in the Old Norse Strengleikar, the notion of "shape of animal" was rendered as hamr.[119] Another instance of such figure of speech usage occurs in the Old Norse telling of the British king's flying contraption, cf. below:

Bladud's wings

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The legendary king Bladud of the Celtic Britons fashioned himself a pair of wings (Latin: alia) to fly with, according to the original account in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[122] This winged contraption is rendered as a "fjaðrhamr" in the Old Norse translation Breta sögur,[123][53] here meant strictly as a flying suit, not a means of transformation into bird.[53]

Bladud's wings are also rendered into Middle English as "Middle English: feðer-home", cognate with Old Norse: fjaðrhamr, in Layamon's Brut version of Geoffrey's History.[124][125]

Other

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There are bird-people depicted on the Oseberg tapestry fragments, which may be some personage or deity wearing winged cloaks, but it is difficult to identify the figures or even ascertain gender.[126]

Celtic

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King Bladud of Britain created artificial wings to enable flight according to Galfridian sources, conceived of as "feather skin" in Old Norse and Middle English versions (as already discussed above in § Bladud's wings).

Poet's cloak

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In Ireland, the elite class of poets known as the filid wore a feathered cloak, the tuigen, according to Sanas Cormaic ("Cormac's glossary").[127] Although the term may merely refer to a "precious" sort of toga, as Cormac glosses in Latin, it can also signify tuige 'covering ' tuige 'of birds', and goes on to describe the composition of this garment in minute detail.[128][129][p]

Cormac's glossary goes on to describe the tuigen thus: "for it is of skins (croiccenn, dat. chroicnib[131]) of birds white and many-coloured that the poets' toga is made from their girdle downwards, and of [male] mallards' necks and of their crests from the girdle upwards to their neck".[128][129][134]

Although John O'Donovan recognized an attestation to the cloak in the Lebor na Cert ("Book of Rights"), where verses by Benén mac Sescnéin are quoted, this may be an artefact of interpretive translation. In O'Donovan's rendition, the verse reads that the rights of the Kings of Cashel rested with the chief poet of Ireland, together with his bird cloak (Taiḋean), where the term taeidhean (normalized as taiden) is construed to be synonymous with tugen.[q][138][133] However, taíden is glossed as "Band, troop, company"[139] and in a modern translation Myles Dillon renders the same line ("Fogébthar i taeib na taídean") as "The answer will always be found at the assemblies" with no mention of the bird cloak.[140]

The tuigen is also described in the Immacallam in dá Thuarad ("The Colloquy of the two Sages").[141] According to the narrative, in Ulster, Néde son of Adna gains the ollam’s position ("ollaveship") of his father, supplanting the newly appointed Ferchertne, then goes on to sit on the ollam’s chair and wears the ollam’s robe (Old Irish: tuignech), which were of three colors,[143][145] i.e., a band of bright bird's feathers in the middle, speckling of findruine (electrum) metal on the bottom, and "golden colour on the upper half".[146] The tuigen is also mentioned in passing when Ferchertne speaks poetically and identifies his usurper as the young Néde, undeceived by the fake beard of grass.[147][149]

The tuigen is also referred to (albeit allegorically) in the 17th elegy written for Eochaidh Ó hÉoghusa.[141]

In the Old Norwegian work Konungs skuggsjá ("King's Mirror"), one can read a description of lunatics called "gelts"[150] sprouting feathers, in the chapter dealing with Irish marvels (XI):

There is still another matter, that about the men who are called “gelts,” which must seem wonderful. Men appear to become gelts in this way: when hostile forces meet and are drawn up in two lines and both set up a terrifying battle-cry, it happens that timid and youthful men who have never been in the host before are sometimes seized with such fear and terror that they lose their wits and run away from the rest into the forest, where they seek food like beasts and shun the meeting of men like wild animals. It is also told that if these people live in the woods for twenty winters in this way, feathers will grow upon their bodies as on birds; these serve to protect them from frost and cold, but they have no large feathers to use in flight as birds have. But so great is their fleetness said to be that it is not possible for other men or even for greyhounds to come near them; for those men can dash up into a tree almost as swiftly as apes or squirrels.

―tr. by Laurence M. Larson[151] (original text in Old Norse/Old Norwegian[152])

Regarding the above description of the "Gelts" sprouting feathers, it refers to the Irish word geilt meaning a "lunatic" induced into madness by fear from battle such as described in "King's Mirror" above.[150] The word geilt also occurs as a nickname for "Suibne Geilt"[150] or "Mad Sweeney" who transforms into a feathered form according to the medieval narrative Buile Shuibhne.

This concept is adapted to the Greco-Roman mythology; Mercury, god of medicine, wears a "bird covering" or "feather mantle" rather than talaria (usually conceived of as feathered slippers) in medieval Irish versions of classical literature, such as the Aeneid.[153]

China

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Stories concerning the guhuoniao (姑獲鳥 lit. "wench bird";[154]) describes the heavenly maiden who by wearing a "feathered garment" can transform into a bird and attempts to snatch away human children, being childless herself. This story is considered to fall somewhat under the purview of the swan-maiden type. It is arguably the oldest example, a version being found in the Xuan zhong ji [zh] and a slight variant in the Soushenji both dating to the 4th century.[155][156]

bronze feather-man
Bronze statuette of yuren "feather-human"
―Unearthed from Chang'an city ruins from the Eastern Han dynasty.

In the Chinese Daoist concept of gods and immortals (神仙, shenxian), these immortals wear feather garments or yuyi (羽衣).[157] The xian also included human-born Daoists who purportedly attained immortality.[158] These immortals have their antecedents in the myth of "feather-humans" or "winged men" (yuren, 羽人).[157][159] These "winged spirits" occur in ancient art, such as Han dynasty cast bronzes,[158] and an example (cf. fig. above) appear to be clothed and possess a pair of wings. [160][r] Early literary attestations are rather scant, though the Chu Ci (楚辞) anthology may be cited (poetic work entitled Yuan You) as mentioning the yuren.[157][159]

These yuren were originally supernatural divinities and strictly non-human, but later conflated or strongly associated with the xian (仙/僊) immortals, which Daoist adepts could aspire to become.[160][161]

The Book of Han[s] records that the Emperor Wu of Han allowed the fangshi sorcerer Luan Da[t] to wear a feathered garment in his presence, interpreted to be the granting of the privilege to publicly appeal the sorcerer's attainment of the winged immortal's power or status.[161][162] A later commentator of the early Tang dynasty, Yan Shigu clarifies that the winged garment yuyi was made from bird feathers, and signifies the gods and immortals taking flight.[163]

In the early Tang (or rather Wu Zhou) dynasty, the Empress Wu Zetian commanded her favorite paramour Daoist Zhang Changzong to be dressed up in a mock-up of famed Dao master Wang Ziqiao [ja]. Part of the costume set he wore included a "bird-feathered coat".[164] The coat was referred to as a ji cui (集翠), that is to say, made from the gathered feathers of the kingfisher (feizui, 翡翠).[u][165][v]

Shift to silk garment

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Regarding the High Tang period Emperor Xuanzong, legend has it that he composed or arranged the Nishang yuyi qu [zh] ("Melody of the Rainbow Skirts, Feathered Coats"). According to the fabulous account (preserved in Taiping Guangji), the Emperor was conveyed to the immortal realm (Lunar Palace) by a xian named Luo Gongyuan [zh]. The "rainbow skirts" and "feathered coats" in the tune's title have been surmised by commentators to refer to the clothing described as worn by the dancing immortal women in this account, namely the "white loose-fitting silk dress".[167] Hence it is supposed that in the popular image of those times, the celestial "feather coats" were being regarded as silken, more specifically "white glossed silk" garments.[170]

In modern times, a number of folktales have been collected from all over China that are classed as the swan-maiden type, which are renditions of the Weaver Maiden and the Cowherd legend. These consequently may not strictly have a "feather garment" as the implement in the flying motif. In the tale type, the Weaver Maiden is usually forcibly taken back to her celestial home, and the earthly Cowherd follows after, using various items, including heavenly costumes and girdles, but also oxen or oxhide in many cases.[171] Although flight using oxhide seems counterintuitive, Wu Xiadon (呉暁東) has devised the theory that the Weaver Girl's primordial form was the silkworm (silkworm-woman [zh]), and the ancient silk-woman or silk-horse myth, a girl after being wrapped in the skin of her favorite horse, metamorphoses into a silkworm.[173][175] But even disregarding this theory, the Weaver Girl in China is considered (less a divinity of plant fiber weaving) and more a divinity of silk and sericulture, a being who descended from heaven and taught mankind how to raise silkworms.[176] Namely, the notion that the celestial Weaver Girl raised silkworms in heaven, spun the thread into silk, and wore the woven silk garment is a widely accepted piece of lore.[177]

Crane cloak

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Cloth or clothing with the down of the crane woven in were called hechang (鶴氅) or [he]changyi ([鶴]氅衣, lit. "crane down clothing"), and existed as actual pieces of clothing by the Tang Dynasty.[178] It was standard uniform for courtly guards during Tang and Song, but both men and women civilians wore them also.[179] A Taoist priest (daoshi) or adept (fangshi) wore these as well.[180][179] It is also mentioned in the famous novel Dream of the Red Chamber that the ladies Lin Daiyu] and Xue Baochai wore such "crane cloak".[181]

Japan

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In Japan, there are also swan maiden type legends about tennyo (天女 "heavenly woman") coming to the earthly world and having her garment, or hagoromo (羽衣) stolen, translated as "feather cloak",[182] or "feather robe",[183] etc. The oldest attestation is set at Lake Yogo [ja] in Ōmi Province (now Shiga Prefecture) and was recorded in a fragment of the lost Fudoki of that province (Ōmi no kuni fudoki [ja]).[184][183]

There is also the well-known folktale of the Tsuru no Ongaeshi (鶴の恩返し, lit. "Crane's Return of a Favor"), where the crane-wife weaves fine cloth out of her own feathers, which might bear some relationship with the heavenly feather cloak.[185][w]

The miniature boy deity Sukunabikona is described as wearing a garment made of wren's feathers in the Nihon shoki.[178][186][x]

Woman wearing feather cloak.
―Torige ritusjo no byōbu, Panel 2. Nara Period. Painting with bird feathers.[y]

The Nara Period (8th century) Torige Tachi-Onna Byōbu (鳥毛立女屏風) refers to a byōbu or a folding "screen with figures of ladies standing; design worked out with birds ' feathers".[188] That is to say, almost looks like a monochrome line-painting or biaomiao [zh] piece, but had feathers of the copper pheasant[z] pasted on them.[189] In particular, the 2nd panel of 6 depicts a woman[187] with a peculiar costume said to be a "feather garment", with "petal-shaped lobes overlapping like scales, extending from top to bottom".[190] This is said to indicate the Japanese court's awareness of the trend in Tang Dynasty China of wearing garments using bird feathers.[189] Art historian Kazuo Kosugi [ja] goes as far as to say this was an homage or allusion to the Chinese Daoist tradition that divinity and immortals wore yingyi made of bird's feathers.[191]

The ancient swan maiden type myth does not only occur in the Ōmi fudoki [ja] where the heavenly woman is forcibly married to a man. In different tale found in the Tango fudoki [ja], the heavenly woman is forcibly adopted by an old childless couple.[183][192] Although only the former text explicitly mentions "feather robe", and the Tango version only says it was the heavenly woman's costume (衣裳, ishō) which was hidden away, it is surmised that the feather garment was meant there as well.[193]

In The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter (written down in the Heian Period?), Princess Kaguya mounts a flying cart and ascends to the "Moon Palace", while the angelic tennin who arrived to escort her also brought for her the hagoromo feather garment as well as the medicine of immortality and agelessness. Due to the flying car, the feather garment here is supposedly not a direct means for her to be able to fly,[aa][194] and it is guessed to be an article of clothing required by her to become or revert to a genuine celestial being.[197] It is pointed out that many scholars assume the tennin here to be the dictionary definition Buddhist entities, but the concept of immortality is incongruent with the Buddhist core tenet of transience and rebirth, so the tennin must really be regarded as the borrowing of divinities and immortals (xian; 仙/僊) of Taoism.[198]

As silken attire or scarf

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―Painting depicting a scene from Noh play Hagoromo.}

The ancient legend about the Princess Tsuminoe [ja] classed as a hagoromo densetsu ("tradition of the robe of feathers"),[199] which does not clarify how she flew away as tennnyo in the older version, has a later Heian Period version where she put on a hire, i.e., a scarf (肩巾 or 領巾) and took flight.[200]

That is to say, the so-called "feather robe" hagoromo came to be commonly depicted as what can only be described as the sheer silk scarf, called "hire (領巾)" in olden times,[ab][201]

Later in the Muromachi Period, in performances of the Noh play Hagoromo, the dancing actor portraying the heavenly female tennyo wears a supposed hagoromo feather garment. The prop costume is apparently made from whitish thin silk (or sometimes, thicker colorful silk).[202] Though the theatrical convention serves merely as a hint to what the original hagoromo garment was like,[202][ac], but since sheer silk has been prized since the ancient Han or earlier, and even unearthed in Japanese Yayoi period sites,[ad] the hagoromo legend costume may well share origins with the tennnyo images found in Buddhist temples, etc.[ae] according to scholar Junrō Nunome, professedly speaking out of his textile expertise, being a non-folklorist.[203]

However, the caveat is that while a dictionary consultation of tennyo (lit. "heavenly woman") typically explains it as a Buddhist female entity, the proper context is that of so-called "heavenly" beings actually refer to deities and immortals (神仙, shenxian) of Taoism who dwell in the xian realm. And this caveat applies even to the case of the Bamboo Cutter's daughter Kaguya, who ascends to the "Moon Palace".[198] As for the Nara Period work of art using real bird feathers, it has been theorized (by Kosugi) that it alludes to the feather garments of the shenxian, as aforementioned.[191]

But even in the context of the shenxian garments, later literature dating to the golden age of Tang ascribe the Daoist heavenly immortals wearing spun and softened silk, as in the legendary tale surrounding the "Melody of the Rainbow Gown and the Feathered Robe [zh]" (q.v., § China above).[af]


Explanatory notes

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  1. ^ Cf. overall similarity in design to Bishop Museum piece catalogued C.9558[1]
  2. ^ Incidentally, a tertiary meaning of pāʻū is that it signifies the red feathers around the yellow in an ornamental feather bundle, called ʻuo.[14]
  3. ^ Of which there are nine version according to Brown (2022).
  4. ^ Whereas the Hawaiian feather cape developed from rectangular to circular shape, as aforementioned
  5. ^ Though the kahu kura was literally 'red cape' it was understood to signify a cape made from the feathers of the kaka parrot.[32] Māori kahu kura may be cognate with Hawaiian ʻahu ʻula, since the latter will result from dropping the k.[33] Though not the kaka parrot, Hiroa elsewhere states that koko is an olden name for the tui bird, and he also suggests dropping the k yields Hawaiian ʻōʻō, a source of yellow feathers there.[34]
  6. ^ The Cleasby-Vigufsson definition of fjaðr-hamr as "'feather ham' or winged haunch.."[57] is avoided by the aforementioned translators and commentators; Haymes's translation The Saga of Thidrek being an exception.
  7. ^ To complicate matters, despite the choice of wording ("cloak", the primary sense), the intended meaning may be opposite. Thus Larrington's translation "Thrym's Poem" renders the term as "feather cloak", but in endnote explains this is meant as "attribute" of flying capability.[58] And vice versa: Morris says "shape" but in the next breath describes as "such a costume"[59]
  8. ^ Völundr in the Eddic lay, but Velent in Þiðreks saga.
  9. ^ Gunnel notes that Oðinn's heiti Arnhöfði ('eagle head') may be a reference to him assuming the eagle shape to flee from Suttungr.[47]
  10. ^ There is yet a third but a clear minority view that Völundr somehow regained his ability as shapeshifter to transform at will without any device.[106]
  11. ^ Old Norse: "fleginn af grip eða af gambr eða af þeim fugl er struz heitir".
  12. ^ The translation "griffin" here is backed by German sources, such as Franz Rolf Schröder block-quoted in English translation,[109] and Alfred Becker.[107] But "griffin" is lacking in Haymes's English translation: the terms gripr and gambr (gammr) are both glossed as 'vulture' in Cleasby-Vigfusson,[110][111] which explains why Haymes's translation collapses three birds into two: "winged haunch of a vulture, or of a bird called ostrich". But Cleasby-Vigfusson admits gripr derives from German griff [meaning 'griffin'] and only cites this one instance in the Þiðreks saga;[110] the word is clearly a hapax legomenon.[107]
  13. ^ The fjaðrhamr has also been rendered as "feather haunch" or "winged haunch",[112] as according to Cleasby-Vigfusson for the combined form,[57] though the literal translation would be "feather skin".[46][109]
  14. ^ In the German translation, Exkursionsseele equivalent to free-soul [de] is used.
  15. ^ "forme extérieure de l'âme".
  16. ^ Atkinson (1901) did register some doubt whether this was a genuine bird-skin garment from the very beginning which was thus name aptly, or an ex post facto explanation later developed, based on the name (or the conjectural etymology thereof).[130] Atkinson's reservation is also noted in the eDIL.[127]
  17. ^ Here "chief poet" was used by O'Donovan for suaiḋ, whereas Myles Dillon gave "sage" (for suíd. Cf. suí glossed as "I(a) man of learning, scholar, wise man, sage"; "More specifically head of a monastic or poetic school".[135] The term differs from ollam (ard-ollam) or éces (éices[136]) which usually correspond to "chief poet".[137]
  18. ^ Kitamura lists other iconographic examples, such as Eastern Han tomb murals where he comments that the feathered man wears "a cape-like yuyi resembling a mino" or Japanese straw cape.".[160]
  19. ^ Under the "Treatise on Suburban Sacrifices" (郊祀志).
  20. ^ Luan Da aka General of Wuli (or "five benefits"; 五利将軍.
  21. ^ As recorded in Xue Yongruo [zh]'s Shu yi ji ("Records of the Collected Strange": 集異記).
  22. ^ Later during the Qing dynasties, kingfisher feather headdresses were worn by empresses, with several surviving examples. They appear in Song period portraits also.[166]
  23. ^ Cf. § China, regarding "crane cloak" (hechang, 鶴氅, lit. "crane down").[180]
  24. ^ Cf. Como's preceding discussion on the lore of the Weaver Maiden and the Cowherd (Japanese tanabata festival). Note that the notable Chinese analogue to the tennyo/hagoromo (heavenly maid/feather cloak) legend is the astrological Weaver Maiden and Cowherd legend, as discussed above in § China
  25. ^ Full color images available at Shōsōin site[187]。
  26. ^ While not directly relevant here, the feathers were determined to belong to yamadori or copper pheasant, endemic to Japan, which established the artwork as having been created in Japan, not imported from China.
  27. ^ And the tennin, also are riding clouds, rather than flying with the feather robe, as is pointed out.
  28. ^ Quoting waka poet and critic Tomohiko Sunaga: "[what] the ancient people called a hire (領巾), a sheer silk, thin scarf 古代の人々が「領巾」と称した薄絹の細長いスカーフ" or, "the Benten or Kisshōten's long, thin cloth worn floatingly around their shoulders 弁天様や吉祥天女がふわりと肩に被いている細長い布".
  29. ^ Nunome notes that given the association of the stock phrase ten'i muhō (天衣無縫) meaning "seamless", the Noh costume which is clearly not seamless must be regarded as "altered それにふさわしく変形されたもの", only approximating the genuine item.
  30. ^ Yoshinogari site.
  31. ^ More specifically according to Nunome, tennyo as depicted in Asuka and Nara Period temples in Japan, and cave art at the Dunhuang site in China.
  32. ^ The Chinese text gives 素練, which refers to white glossed silk (練り絹, nerikinu) according to Ando. An Edo Period source (『貞享記』 (Jōteiki)) cited by Nunome contrarily states that the ama no hagoromo was made of raw silk (生絹, kiginu) or unglossed silk.[204]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Hiroa 1944, Plate 6
  2. ^ a b c Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel Hoyt Elbert (2003). "lookup of ʻahu ʻula". in Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press.; Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "ʻahu ʻula"
  3. ^ a b c d Malo, David (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities: (Moolelo Hawaii). Translated by Emerson, Nathaniel Bright. Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette. pp. 63, 106–107.
  4. ^ Hiroa 1944, pp. 9–10.
  5. ^ a b c Pratt, H. Douglas (2005). The Hawaiian Honeycreepers: Drepanidinae. OUP Oxford. pp. 279–280. ISBN 9780198546535.
  6. ^ a b Hall, H. U. (March 1923). "Two Hawaiian Feather Garments, Ahuula". The Museum Journal (University of Pennsylvania). 14 (1): 41, 42.
  7. ^ Bishop, Marcia Brown (1940). Hawaiian Life of the Pre-European Period. Southworth-Anthoensen Press. pp. 36–37.
  8. ^ The mamo feathers were yellow tinged with orange or even called "rich orange" compared with the ʻōʻō feathers which were "bright yellow".[6][7] And the mamo was forbidden use except by a king of an entire island.[6][3]
  9. ^ Sinclair 1976, repr. Sinclair 1995, p. 67
  10. ^ Sinclair 1995, p. 120.
  11. ^ Although the kāhili was strictly for the aliʻi there was a kāhili bearer appointed to hold it,[9] and it was waved over the royal during sleep, as a fly-brush[3] or fly-whisk. Contrary to the one-handed version in the princess's painting, the multi-colored kāhili held by her bearer may be 30 feet long.[10]
  12. ^ Holt 1985, p. 68.
  13. ^ Sinclair 1976, repr. Sinclair 1995, p. xiii, "she firmly holds a kāhili"
  14. ^ a b Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel Hoyt Elbert (2003). "lookup of pāʻū". in Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press. Kepau's Combined Hawaiian Dictionary, s.v. "pā.ʻū"
  15. ^ a b Sinclair 1995, p. 34.
  16. ^ Harger 1983, p. 8.
  17. ^ Ron Staton (9 June 2003). "Historic feather garment to be displayed". The Honolulu Advertiser.
  18. ^ Burl Burlingame (6 May 2003). "Rare pa'u pageantry The grand cloak is made of hundreds of thousands of feathers from the 'oo and mamo birds". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved 29 November 2001.
  19. ^ Hiroa 1944, p. 3.
  20. ^ Kamehiro, Stacy L. (2009). The Arts of Kingship: Hawaiian Art and National Culture of the Kalakaua Era. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 9780824832636.
  21. ^ Harger, Barbara (1983). "Dress and Adornment of Pre-European Hawaiians". National Meeting Proceedings. Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing: 9–10.
  22. ^ Harger 1983, p. 11.
  23. ^ a b Brown, Marie Alohalani (2022). Ka Po'e Mo'o Akua: Hawaiian Reptilian Water Deities. University of Hawaii Press. p. 122. ISBN 9780824891091.
  24. ^ Version of Haleʻole, S. N. (1863), reprinted in: Beckwith, Martha Warren (1919). "The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai". Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1911–1912. 33: 636–638.
  25. ^ Beckwith, Martha Warren (1982) [1940]. Hawaiian Mythology. University of Hawaii Press. p. 491. ISBN 9780824805142.
  26. ^ Charlot, John (June 1991). "The Feather Skirt of Nāhiʻenaʻena: an Innovation in Postcontact Hawaiian Art". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 100 (2): 137. JSTOR 20706388.
  27. ^ Charlot 1991, p. 137,[26] cited by Brown.[23]
  28. ^ Hiroa 1944, pp. 1, 9–10.
  29. ^ a b c Hiroa, Te Rangi (1926). The Evolution of Maori Clothing. New Plymouth, NZ: Thomas Avery & Sons. pp. xxii, 58–59 and Pl. 22.
  30. ^ Te Ara
  31. ^ Te Ara
  32. ^ Hiroa 1926, p. xxii.
  33. ^ Hiroa 1926, p. 195.
  34. ^ Hiroa 1944, p. 10.
  35. ^ "Elton John gifted rare Maori cloak". The New Zealand Herald. 7 December 2007. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  36. ^ Kay, Martin (9 April 2009). "Clark gets cloak for a queen". The Dominion Post. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  37. ^ a b Buono 2012, p. 238.
  38. ^ Freitas da Silva, Rafael (2020) [2015]. O Rio antes do Rio (in Portuguese) (4 ed.). Relicário. n124. ISBN 9786586279047.
  39. ^ Françozo 2015, p. 111 citing naturalist George Marcgraf (1610–1644)
  40. ^ a b c Françozo 2015, p. 111.
  41. ^ Soares, Bruno Brulon (2023). "§Dressed in the feather of birds". The Anticolonial Museum: Reclaiming Our Colonial Heritage. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2019–2020. ISBN 9781000932690.
  42. ^ Bleichmar, Daniela (2017). Visual Voyages: Images of Latin American Nature from Columbus to Darwin. Yale University Press. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 9780300224023.
  43. ^ a b c Mitchell, Stephen A. (2023). Old Norse Folklore: Tradition, Innovation, and Performance in Medieval Scandinavia. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501773471.
  44. ^ Ruggerini 2006, pp. 204–205.
  45. ^ a b In the narrative, Þjazi appears "in eagle form" (Old Norse: í arnarhami) at the meal (and in the woods), but when he goes in pursuit, he "wears an eagle coat" (Old Norse: tekr an arnarhamin.[44]
  46. ^ a b c Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "hamr"
  47. ^ a b c Gunnell, Terry (1995). The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 82. ISBN 9780859914581.
  48. ^ arnar-hamr: giant in "eagle's skin; vals-hamr", a falcon's skin.
  49. ^ a b Vigfússon & Powell 1883, Þryms-kviða; or, The Lay of Thrym, pp. 175–176.
  50. ^ a b Orchard tr. 2011, pp. 96–101, 304, Thrymskvida: The song of Thrym, Notes: Thrymskvida: The song of Thrym.
  51. ^ Zoega (1910), s.v. "fjaðr-hamr": 'feather coat'.
  52. ^ Bellows tr. (1923) Thrymskvida
  53. ^ a b c d McKinnel, John (2014a) [2000]. "Chapter 8. Myth as Therapy: The Function of Þrymskviða". In Kick, Donata; Shafer, John D. (eds.). Essays on Eddic Poetry. University of Toronto Press. pp. 201 and note 13. ISBN 9781442615885. 13 See e.g. Breta sögur, in Hauksbók.. Eiríkur Jónsson and Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1892-6), 231-302 (p. 248); this was translated from the Latin of Geoffrey of Monmouth.. Geoffrey simply refers at this point to the wings which King Bladud orders... Originally —— (2000). "Myth as Therapy: The Function of Þrymskviða". Medium Ævum. 69 (1): 1–20. doi:10.2307/43631487. JSTOR 43631487.
  54. ^ a b Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (2002) [1993]. The lost beliefs of northern Europe. London: Routledge. p. 109. ISBN 9781134944682.
  55. ^ Byock tr. 2005 Skaldskaparmal
  56. ^ a b Näsström, Britt-Mari [in Swedish] (1995). Freyja, the Great Goddess of the North. Department of History of Religions, University of Lund. p. 110. ISBN 9789122016946.
  57. ^ a b Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "fjaðr-hamr"
  58. ^ a b "Thrym's Poem". The Poetic Edda. Translated by Larrington, Carolyne. OUP Oxford. 2014. pp. 93–98 and note to "feather cloak" at str. 3. ISBN 9780191662942.: St. 3: "feather cloak: 'attribute of Freyja which allows her to fly".
  59. ^ a b c d Morris, Katherine S. (1991). Sorceress Or Witch?: The Image of Gender in Medieval Iceland and Northern Europe. University Press of America. p. 201. ISBN 9780819182562. Freyja possessed a feather or falcon shape, ON valshamr (Skáldskaparmál 1). Frigg also owned such a costume, and Loki borrowed it (Skáldskaparmál 18)
  60. ^ Egeler 2009, p. 443 "Odin als auch der Riese Suttungr einen arnarhamr ('Adlerhemd')" = 'eagle shirt'.
  61. ^ a b Vigfússon & Powell 1883, p. 465: "[Odin] turned himself into the eagle's coat, and.. Suttung.. betook himself to his eagle-skin"
  62. ^ a b Finnur Jónsson ed. 1900, p. 73.
  63. ^ Snorri Sturluson (1916). The Prose Edda. Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur. American-Scandinavian Foundation. pp. 94–96. ISBN 9780890670002. [Odin] turned himself into the shape of an eagle and.. Suttung.. too assumed the fashion of an eagle
  64. ^ Snorri Sturluson (1992) [1954]. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythology. Translated by Jean I. Young. University of California Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780520234772. [Odin] changed himself into an eagle and.. Suttung.. took on eagle shape
  65. ^ a b Even though the double instances of arnarhamr[62] were translated early by Vigfusson and Powell (1882) as Odin's "eagle's coat" and Suttung's "eagle-skin",[61] later translators (Brodeur 1916, Young 1954) render them as "shape", etc.[63][64] etc.
  66. ^ Vigfússon & Powell 1883, p. 465: "turned himself into the similitude of a serpent" vs. "turned into the eagle's coat"
  67. ^ Ruggerini 2006, pp. 206.
  68. ^ a b Note that the same verb (brásk, preterite of bregða is used by the Snorra Edda to describe Odin's transformation into the serpent's likeness, so by being consistent in the rendering of the same verb, Vigfusson & Powell produced the (awkward) translation "turned into the eagle's coat".[66] Ruggerini argues that the verb taka "to wear" is not used, and the bregða i meaning changing appearance into something else, suggests use of black magic like seiðr.[67]
  69. ^ Mitchell 2023 Fig. 3.1 and description in List of Illustrations
  70. ^ a b Egeler, Matthias (2013). Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion: A Survey. Münchner nordistische Studien 15. Herbert Utz Verlag. p. 117. ISBN 9783831642267.
  71. ^ Þrymskviða 3,6; 5,2; 9,2.[53] Finnur Jónsson ed. (1905),1905 Vigfusson & Powell ed. with prose tr. (1883)[49] Orchard tr. (2011)[50]
  72. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 208ff, Bragaræður 56.
  73. ^ Byock tr. 2005.
  74. ^ Snorra Edda, Skaldskaparmál G1, G56.[59][70] In the 1848 edition, this belongs in the section "Bragi's sayings" 56, prior to Skáldskaparmál,[72] but Faulkes tr. 1995 places it near the beginning of Skáldskaparmál marked as section "[56]" at pp. 59–60. Cf. also Byock (2005),[73]
  75. ^ Ruggerini 2006, pp. 204, 209.
  76. ^ Haustlöng quoted in Skaldskaparmál 22, Faulkes tr. 1995, pp. 86–88
  77. ^ Or hauks bjalfi "hawk's skin"[47]
  78. ^ Ruggerini 2006, pp. 203, 206.
  79. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 284.
  80. ^ Skaldskaparmál 18, "..Þórr fór til Geirröðargarða",[79] "how Thor went to Geirrod's courts" (Faulkes tr. 1995, p. 80).
  81. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 292.
  82. ^ "Jötunheimr" ("Giantland") is not explicit in text, but the Þórsdrápa here quoted periphrases Þórr's destination as "ymsa kindar iðja"[81] which has been translated as "seat of Ymir's kin [Giantland]" (Faulkes tr. 1995, p. 83). As the story goes, Loki in falcoln form was captured, and is compelled to bring Þórr to Geirröðr.
  83. ^ Faulkes tr. 1995, Skáldskaparmál 18 & 19.
  84. ^ Thorpe 1851, pp. 52–53.
  85. ^ Skaldskaparmál G18.[59] Translations by Faulkes (1995)[83] and Thorpe (1851).[84]
  86. ^ Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (2013) [1968]. The Road to Hel: a study of the conception of the dead in Old Norse literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781107632349.; originally New York: Greenwood Press, 1968
  87. ^ Grimstad 1983 discusses the transformation of gods "donning a feather coat", and in the attached footnoted (n18, p. 206) with an association with Oðinn's ability to transform into creatures in the Ynglinga saga.
  88. ^ Sveinbjörn Egilsson ed. 1848, p. 218ff, Bragaræður 58.
  89. ^ Egeler 2009, pp. 442, 444.
  90. ^ "Völsunga saga – heimskringla.no". heimskringla.no. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  91. ^ Crawford 2017, pp. 2–3.
  92. ^ Ruggerini 2006, p. 215.
  93. ^ a b Egeler 2009, pp. 441–442.
  94. ^ Finnur Jónsson ed. 1905, p. 141, Völundarkviða.
  95. ^ a b c d e "Lay of Volund". The Poetic Edda. Translated by Larrington, Carolyne. OUP Oxford. 2014. pp. 99–111 and note to str. 29. ISBN 9780191662942.: St, 29: "'Lucky..' said Volund 'that I can use my webbed feet'/of which Nidud's warriors deprived me!'/Laughing, Volund rose into air..".
  96. ^ Orchard tr. 2011, Völundarkvida: The song of Völund.
  97. ^ Prose prologue to Völundarkviða:"Þar váru hjá þeim álptarhamir þeira. Þat váru valkyrjur";[94] "Near them were their swan's garments. They were Valkyries";[95] "swan cloaks".[96] The passage is abridged after "Slagfið..." in Vigfússon & Powell 1883, The Lay of Weyland, pp. 168–169.
  98. ^ Benoit, Jérémie (1989). "Le Cygne et la Valkyrie. Dévaluation d'un mythe". Romantisme (in French). 19 (64): 69–84. doi:10.3406/roman.1989.5588.
  99. ^ Ruggerini 2006, p. 214.
  100. ^ McKinnel, John (2002). "Chapter 18. The Context of Völunarkviða". In Acker, Paul; Larrington, Carolyne (eds.). The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology. Routeledge. p. 200. ISBN 9780815316602.
  101. ^ a b In Grimstad 1983, p. 191, it is the "second interpretation" which postulates that a transformation ring is meant; it is further explained that the ring could have belonged to the swan-maiden wife of Volund, and the ring endowed its wearer with an ability of transformation into a swan, etc. The authorities on this point of view listed (n20) are Richard Constant Boer (1907), "Völundarkviða". Arkiv för nordisk filologi 23 (Ny följd. 19): 139–140, Ferdinand Detter (1886) "Bemerkungen zu den Eddaliedern", Arkiv för nordisk filologi 3: 309–319, Halldór Halldórsson (1960) " Hringtöfrar í íslenzkum orðtökum” Íslenzk tunga 2: 18–20 Deutsche Heldensagen, pp. 10–15, Alois Wolf (München, 1965 ) "Gestaltungskerne und Gestaltungsweisen in der altgermanischen Heldendichtung", p. 84.
  102. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 191.
  103. ^ a b c McKinnel, John (2014b) [2000]. "Chapter 9. Völunðarkvida: Origins and Interpretation". In Kick, Donata; Shafer, John D. (eds.). Essays on Eddic Poetry. University of Toronto Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 9781442615885.
  104. ^ Jan de Vries [1952] pp. 196–197 contended that the plural word fitjar in the phrase à fitjum need not be translated "webbed feet" but can be interpreted to mean "wings", cognate with Old Saxon federac and Middle Low German vittek, though McKinnel considers this problematic.[103]
  105. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 191 places "wings" vs. "ring" as the two major schools of thought on the interpretation of this phrase.[102] As exponents of the "feather coat or a pair of artificial wings" view names (n19) Georg Baesecke (1937), A. G. van Hamel (1929) "On Völundarkviða" Arkiv för nordisk filologi 45: 161–175, Hellmut Rosenfeld (1955) and Philip Webster Souers (1943) as anticipating Jan de Vries (1952).
  106. ^ Grimstad 1983, p. 192
  107. ^ a b c d e Becker, Alfred (2021). Franks Casket: Das Runenkästchen von Auzon: Magie in Bildern, Runen und Zahlen (in German). Frank & Timme GmbH. p. 262. ISBN 9783732907380. Cf. the translation of this book, Becker (2023) The King's Gift Box: The Runic Casket of Auzon ISBN 979-8865378730 (in English)
  108. ^ Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "flygill"
  109. ^ a b c Shröder, Franz Rolf (1977) "Der Name Wieland", BzN, new ser. 4:53–62, quoted by Harris 2005, p. 103.[116]
  110. ^ a b Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "gripr(2)" "m. [Germ. griff], a vulture. Þiðr. 92
  111. ^ Cleasby-Vigfusson (1874), s.v. "gammr"
  112. ^ a b c d Haymes tr. 1988, pp. 53–54, Chapter 77.
  113. ^ Ruggerini 2006, pp. 218–220.
  114. ^ Unger tr. 1853, pp. 92–94, Chapter 77.
  115. ^ McKinnel, John (2016). "Chapter 19. Eddic poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian northern England". In Graham-Campbell, James; Hall, Richard; Jesch, Judith; Parsons, David N. (eds.). Vikings and the Danelaw. Oxbow Books. p. 334. ISBN 9781785704550.
  116. ^ a b Harris, Joseph (2005) [1985]. "Eddic Poetry". In Clover, Carol J.; Lindow, John (eds.). Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. University of Toronto Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780802038234.
  117. ^ Þiðreks saga is considered "foreign" by McKinnel[115] since it was translated from a Low German source.[103][116]
  118. ^ McKinnel 2002, p. 201.
  119. ^ a b Samson, Vincent (2011). "Chapitre VII. La figure littéraire du berserker et ses stéréotypes dans lessagas islandaises". Les Berserkir: Les guerriers-fauves dans la Scandinavie ancienne, de l'âge de Vendel aux vikings (VIe-XIe siècle) (in French). Translated by Clover. Villeneuve-d'Ascq: Presses Univ. Septentrion. p. 249. ISBN 9782757403532.; Samson, Vincent (2020). "Chapitre VII. La figure littéraire du berserker et ses stéréotypes dans lessagas islandaisesKapitel VII, Die literarische Figur des Berskers und seine Sterotypen". Die Berserker: Die Tierkrieger des Nordens von der Vendel- bis zur Wikingerzeit (in German). Translated by Hofmann, Anne. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 217. ISBN 9783110332926.
  120. ^ Sayce, A. H. (1890). "The Legend of King Bladud Sayce". Y Cymmrodor. 10: 208.
  121. ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth (1904) Histories of the Kings of Britain, II.iv Bladud foundeth Bath. Translated by Sebastian Evans. p. 44
  122. ^ Sayce, with Latin text appended in footnote as "..alis ire per summitatem aeris temptauit,[120] translated by Evans as "..he had fashioned him wings and tried to go upon the top of the air".[121]
  123. ^ Jónsson 1892–1896.
  124. ^ Prior, Richard Chandler Alexander (1860). "Thor of Asgard". Ancient Danish Ballads: trans by R C Alexander Prior. London: Williams and Norgate. pp. 3–10 (note to str. 3).
  125. ^ Ruggerini 2006, p. 220.
  126. ^ Mannering, Ulla (2016). Iconic Costumes: Scandinavian Late Iron Age Costume Iconography. Oxbow Books. pp. 6–27. ISBN 9781785702181.
  127. ^ a b eDIL s.v. "tuigen, tugan": var. "stuigen"
  128. ^ a b Stokes, Whitley, ed. (1862). "tugen". Three Irish Glossaries: Cormac's Glossary, Codex A. London: Williams and Norgate. p. 43.
  129. ^ a b O'Donovan, John tr., annot. Stokes, Whitley ed., notes, eds. (1868). "tugen". Sanas Chormaic [Cormac's glossary]. Calcutta: O.T. Cutter. p. 160.
  130. ^ a b Atkinson, Robert, ed. (1901). "tugain". Ancient laws of Ireland: Glossary. Vol. VI. H.M. Stationery Office. p. 756. though one might be curious as to which was the prius here, the word or its explanation
  131. ^ eDIL s.v. "croiccenn"
  132. ^ eDIL s.v. "lachu"
  133. ^ a b Joyce, Patrick Weston (1903). A Social History of Ancient Ireland: Treating of the Government, Military System, and Law. Longmans, Green, and Company. p. 447.
  134. ^ Supplementing "[male] mallard" as O'Donovan abridged the term coilech to indicate gender, and lachu does not specify this species but is 'duck in general', while coilech lachan is "wild drake".[132] Joyce substituted "mallards" with "drakes".[133]
  135. ^ eDIL s.v. "suí"
  136. ^ eDIL s.v. "éices"
  137. ^ Joyce 1903, pp. 419, 424, 447. 448.
  138. ^ O'Donovan, John, ed. (1847). Leabhar na g-ceart [The Book of Rights]. Dublin: Celtic Society. pp. 32–33.:
  139. ^ eDIL s.v. "1 taíden"
  140. ^ Dillon, Myles, ed. (2006), Lebor na Cert [The Book of Rights], Cork, Ireland: CELT online at University Colleg, p. 6; English tr., p. 7
  141. ^ a b Simms, Katharine (1998). "13 Literacy and the Irish Bards". In Pryce, Huw (ed.). Literacy in Medieval Celtic Societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 245–246. ISBN 9780521570398.
  142. ^ eDIL s.v. "tuignech"
  143. ^ The "Tri datha na tugnigi (Three were the colours of the robe)" text is given under "tuignech" in eDIL, which notes the word is formed from tuigen.[142]
  144. ^ Connellan, Owen (1860). "The Bards of Ireland". Transactions of the Ossianic Society for the Year 1857. 5: 17.
  145. ^ Connellan's brief summary states "Tuidhean or Ollav's robe".[144]
  146. ^ Stokes, Whitley, ed. tr. (1905). "The Colloquy of the Two Sages". Revue Celtique. 26. VIII., pp. 12, 13.
  147. ^ Stokes 1905, X., pp. 14, 15.
  148. ^ Carey, John (1996). "Obscure Styles in Medieval Ireland". Mediaevalia: A Journal of Medieval Studies. 19: 27. JSTOR 20706388.; cf. books.google
  149. ^ Carey's translation of the opening lines mentioning tuigen is Ferchertne saying: "Who is the poet, the poet whose mantle would be his glory?" Carey interprets Néde's beard of fér to have been made of "moss".[148]
  150. ^ a b c eDIL s.v. "1 geilt" gives definition as "one who goes mad from terror; a panic-stricken fugitive from battle; a crazy person living in the woods..", citing Irish Mirabilia in Speculum Regale ("King's Mirror"). Usage as Suibne Geilt's sobriquet also mentioned.
  151. ^ Larson, Laurence Marcellus, tr. (1917), "XI. Irish Marvels which have Miraculous Origins", The King's Mirror: (Speculum Regalae - Konungs Skuggsjá), Twayne Publishers, p. 116
  152. ^ Finnur Jónsson, ed. (1920). "12". Konungs skuggsjá: Speculum regale. Vol. 2. Reykjavík: I kommission i den Gyldendalske boghandel, Nordisk forlag. pp. 61–62.
  153. ^ Miles, Brent (2011). Heroic Saga and Classical Epic in Medieval Ireland. Cambridge: DS Brewer. pp. 75–76. ISBN 1843842645. ISSN 0261-9865.
  154. ^ Unschuld (2021) tr. Ben Cao Gang Mu, Volume IX, Ch. 49-28. Gu huo niao 姑獲鳥 "wench bird".
  155. ^ Hsieh 2003, pp. 433–434.
  156. ^ Ding 2023, p. 55.
  157. ^ a b c Kitamura 1993, pp. 57–58.
  158. ^ a b Young 2018, p. 218.
  159. ^ a b Yu, Anthony C., ed. (2013). "74 Long Life reports how vicious the demons are; Pilgrim displays his transformation power". The Journey to the West: Volume III. University of Chicago Press. Ch. 74, note 3, p. 403. ISBN 9780226971421.
  160. ^ a b c Kitamura 1993, p. 58.
  161. ^ a b Kirkova, Zornica (2016). Roaming into the Beyond: Representations of Xian Immortality in Early Medieval Chinese Verse. BRILL. p. 94. ISBN 9789004313699.
  162. ^ Kosugi 1988, pp. 7–8, 12; Kitamura 1993, p. 57
  163. ^ Yan Shigu: "羽衣,以鳥羽為衣,取其神仙飛翔之意也". Cited/translated in Kosugi 1988, p. 2, Kitamura 1993, p. 57.
  164. ^ Wang 2005, p. 52.
  165. ^ a b Hayashi, Ryōichi [in Japanese] (1982). "Juka bijinzu no keifu" 樹下美人図の系譜. Rekishi kōron. 8 (2/cumulative No. 75): 91.
  166. ^ "Kingfisher Headdresses from China". Art Institute Chicago. 21 May 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  167. ^ Wang 2005, p. 61.
  168. ^ Ando 2012, p. 13.
  169. ^ Morrison, Michael; Price, Lorna, eds. (1997). Classical Kimono from the Kyoto National Museum: Four Centuries of Fashion. Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. p. 24. ISBN 9780939117093.
  170. ^ The Chinese text has sulian (素練), and Ando explains in Japanese that this is "white neri-kinu (練り絹),[168] literally "kneaded silk" but rendered as "glossed silk". Cf. the explanation of the term nerinuki (練緯) literally "kneaded weft", described as having "weft threads of glossed silk (degummed; sericin removed)".[169]
  171. ^ Ding 2023, pp. 46–47.
  172. ^ Wu, Xiaodong (2016). "Cán tuōpí wèi niúlángzhīnǚ shénhuà zhī yuánxíng kǎo" 蚕蜕皮为牛郎织女神话之原型考 [Consideration on the silkworm sheding its skin being the prototype of the story of the cowherd and the weaver girl]. Mínzú wénhuà yánjiū 民族文化研究. Zhōngguó shèhuì kēxuéyuàn mínzú wénxué yánjiū suǒ. pp. 29–38.; Wu, Xiaodong (2016). "Cóng cán mǎ shénhuà dào pán hù shénhuà de yǎnbiàn" 从蚕马神话到盘瓠神话的演变. Qiánnán mínzú shīfàn xuéyuàn xuébào 黔南民族师范学院学报 [Journal of Qiannan Uriversity of Nationalities]: 6–10.
  173. ^ Wu (2016)[172] apud Ding 2023, pp. 51, 52–53, 55–56
  174. ^ Birrell, Anne (1999). Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Johns Hopkins U. Press. pp. 199–200. ISBN 9780801861833.
  175. ^ For a short synopsis of the myth, see Birrell.[174]
  176. ^ Ding 2023, pp. 48–49, 50.
  177. ^ Ding 2023, p. 56: "繭から取った糸で織られた天衣を着た天上に住む織姫"
  178. ^ a b Sugiyama 1942, p. 41.
  179. ^ a b Xu Hairong 徐海荣, ed. (2000). "Changyu 氅衣". Zhōngguó fúshì dàdiǎn 中国服饰大典. 华夏出版社. p. 109. ISBN 9787508020181.
  180. ^ a b Giles (1912). "鶴" Chinese-English Dictionary (2nd ed.), s.v. "Ch'ang 氅"
  181. ^ Woesler, Martin (2022). "Interculturally Integrative Masterpiece of World Literature with Unique Characteristics". In Moratto, Riccardo; Liu, Kanglong; Chao, Di-kai (eds.). Dream of the Red Chamber: Literary and Translation Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000812381.
  182. ^ Miller 1987, p. 68, 70, etc.
  183. ^ a b c Kasahara, Kazuo [in Japanese] (2001). A History of Japanese Religion. Translated by Paul McCarthy; Gaynor Sekimori. Kosei Publishing Company. p. 147. ISBN 9784333019175.
  184. ^ Miller 1987, p. 68.
  185. ^ Miller 1987, pp. 78–80.
  186. ^ Como, Michael I. (2008). Shotoku: Ethnicity, Ritual, and Violence in the Japanese Buddhist Tradition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199884964.
  187. ^ a b "Folding screen panel with bird feathers decorating the painting of a lady under a tree. Second panel". Shōsōin. Imperial Household Agenc. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  188. ^ Harada, Jiro (15 November 1911). "Old Japanese Folding Screens". The Studio: An Illustrated Magazine of Fine & Applied Art. 54 (224): 120. JSTOR 20706388.
  189. ^ a b Seikine, Shinryū [in Japanese] (1988). "Torige: Torige ritsujo byōbu" 鳥毛：鳥毛立女屏風 とりげりつじょびょうぶ. Shōsoin no takaramono 正倉院の宝物 (in Japanese). Hokusha. p. 77. ISBN 9784586507634.
  190. ^ Hayashi: "花弁状の形を上から下まで鱗状に重ねて"[165]
  191. ^ a b Kosugi 1988, p. 2.
  192. ^ Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai (1948). Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature (2 ed.). Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. p. 155.
  193. ^ Ozaki 1986, pp. 242–243: やはり羽衣の類とみなされていただろう [it was probably regarded (as meaning) a sort of (thing much like) a hagoromo]".
  194. ^ Ando 2012, pp. 7, 9.
  195. ^ Horiuchi, Hideaki, ed. (1997). Shin nihon koten bungaku taikei: Taketori monogatari 新日本古典文学大系:竹取物語. Iwanami Shoten.
  196. ^ Watanabe 1983, pp. 38–39.
  197. ^ Ando 2012, pp. 10–11, citing Hideaki Horiuchi.[195] Ando 2012, p. 11, citing Hideo Watanabe[196]。
  198. ^ a b Ando 2012, pp. 6–7.
  199. ^ Ariwara no Narihira (1957). "Lay of Volund". In Vos, Frits (ed.). A Study of the Ise-monogatari, with the Text According to the Den-Teika-hippon. The Hague: Mouton. p. 5.
  200. ^ Katata, Osamu (November 1980). "Tsuminoe Yamahime no genzō" 柘枝仙媛伝承の原像 (PDF). The Otani gakuho. 60 (3): 1–13. @ otani.repo
  201. ^ Sunaga, Tomohiko [in Japanese] (2007). "Hagoromo densetsu no kokei" 羽衣説話の古形. Nihon gensō bungakushi 日本幻想文学史. Heibonsha. p. 231. ISBN 9784582766202.
  202. ^ a b Nunome 1996, p. 11.
  203. ^ Nunome 1996, p. 13.
  204. ^ Nunome 1996, p. 15.

Bibliography

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(Hawaiian material)
(Brazilian material)
(European material)
(East Asian material)
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