Hindustani vocabulary
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Hindustani, also known as Hindi-Urdu, like all Indo-Aryan languages, has a core base of Sanskrit-derived vocabulary, which it gained through Prakrit.[1] As such the standardized registers of the Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu) share a common vocabulary, especially on the colloquial level.[2] However, in formal contexts, Modern Standard Hindi tends to draw on Sanskrit, while Standard Urdu turns to Persian and sometimes Arabic.[3] This difference lies in the history of Hindustani, in which the lingua franca started to gain more Persian words in urban areas (such as Delhi, Lucknow and Hyderabad), under the Delhi Sultanate; this dialect came to be termed Urdu.[4][5]
The original Hindi dialects continued to develop alongside Urdu and according to Professor Afroz Taj, "the distinction between Hindi and Urdu was chiefly a question of style. A poet could draw upon Urdu's lexical richness to create an aura of elegant sophistication, or could use the simple rustic vocabulary of dialect Hindi to evoke the folk life of the village. Somewhere in the middle lay the day to day language spoken by the great majority of people. This day to day language was often referred to by the all-encompassing term Hindustani."[5] In Colonial India, Hindi-Urdu acquired vocabulary introduced by Christian missionaries from the Germanic and Romanic languages, e.g. pādrī (Devanagari: पादरी, Nastaleeq: پادری) from padre, meaning pastor.[6]
When describing the state of Hindi-Urdu under the British Raj, Professor Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa stated that "Truly speaking, Hindi and Urdu, spoken by a great majority of people in north India, were the same language written in two scripts; Hindi was written in Devanagari script and therefore had a greater sprinkling of Sanskrit words, while Urdu was written in Persian script and thus had more Persian and Arabic words in it. At the more colloquial level, however, the two languages were mutually intelligible."[7] After the partition of India, political forces within India tried to further Sanskritize Hindi,[8] while political forces in Pakistan campaigned to remove Prakit/Sanskrit derived words from Urdu and supplant them with Persian and Arabic words.[9] Despite these government efforts, the film industry, Bollywood continues to release its films in the original Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) language, easily understood and enjoyed by speakers of both registers;[10] in addition, many of the same television channels are viewed across the border.[11] In modern times, a third variety of Hindustani with significant English influences has also appeared, which is sometimes called Hinglish or Urdish.[12][13][14][15][16]
Linguistic classification
[edit]Hindi (हिन्दी Hindi) is one of the Indo-Aryan languages of the Indo-European language family. The core of Hindi vocabulary is thus etymologically Indo-European. However, centuries of borrowing has led to the adoption of a wide range of words with foreign origins.
Examples of borrowed words
[edit] |
Due to centuries of contact with Europeans, Turkic peoples, Arabs, Persians, and East Asians, Hindi-Urdu has absorbed countless words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these borrowings into the core vocabulary. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. Close contact with neighboring peoples facilitated the borrowing of words from other Indian languages, Chinese, Burmese, and several indigenous Austroasiatic languages of North India. After centuries of invasions from Persia and the Middle East, particularly under the Mughal Empire, numerous Turkish, Arabic, and Persian words were absorbed and fully integrated into the lexicon. Later, European colonialism brought words from Portuguese, French, Dutch, and most significantly English. Some very common borrowings are shown below.
Borrowings from neighboring languages
[edit]Austroasiatic languages (देशज دیشج Deshaj)
[edit]| Word | Meaning |
|---|---|
| आलू آلو ālū | potato |
| खोज کھوج khoj | discovery |
| चावल چاول cāwal | rice grains |
| चूल्हा چولہا cūlhā | oven, stove |
| झोल جھول jhol | gravy |
| टांग ٹانگ ṭaṅg | leg |
| ढोल ڈھول ḍhol | dhol, drum |
| पेट پیٹ peṭ | belly |
Chinese (चीनी چینی Chīnī)
[edit]| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| चाय چائے cāy | tea | 茶 chá |
| चीनी چینی cīnī | sugar/Chinese | 秦 qín |
| लीची لیچی līcī | lychee | 茘枝 lìzhī |
Borrowings from the Persianate era
[edit]Arabic (अरबी عربی Arabī)
[edit]| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| अक़्ल عقل aqal | wisdom | عقل ‘aql |
| इलाक़ा علاقہ ilāqā | area | علاقة `alāqa "relationship, connection" |
| वज़न وزن vazan | weight | وزن wazn "scale" |
| क़बर قبر qabr | grave | قبر qubr |
| ख़बर خبر k͟habar | news | خبر khabar |
| ख़ाली خالی k͟hālī | empty | خالي khālī |
| ख़्याल خیال k͟hayāl | consideration | خيال khayal " imagination" |
| ग़रीब غریب ġarīb | poor | غريب gharīb "strange" |
| जवाब جواب javāb | answer | جواب jawāb |
| सवाल سوال sovāl | question | سؤال so'āl |
| जमा جمع jamā | collect | جمع jam‘ |
| तारीख़ تاریخ tārīk͟h | date | تاريخ tārīkh "history, date" |
| दुनिया دنیا duniyā | world | دنيا dunya |
| नक़ल نقل naqal | fake | نقل naql |
| फ़क़ीर فقیر faqīr | poor person | فقير faqīr |
| बदल بدل badal | exchange | بدل badl |
| बाक़ी باقی bāqī | remaining | بقي baqīy |
| साहब صاحب sāhab | sir | صاحب ṣāḥib "friend" |
| हिसाब حساب hisāb | calculation | حساب ḥisāb |
| मालिक مالک mālik | owner | مالك mālik "owner, proprietor, holder" |
| लज़ीज़ لذیذ lazeez | delicious | لذيذ latheeth "tasty" |
| किताब کتاب "kitāb" | book | كتاب
kitab "book" |
| एहतियात احتیاط "ehtiyāt" | precaution | احتياط
aihtiat "precaution, reserve" |
| शख़्स شخص "shakhs" | person | شخص shakhs "person" |
| शहीद شہید "shaheed" | martyr | شهيد shahid "martyr" |
| हद حد "had" | limit | حد hada "limit" |
| सेहत صحت "sehat" | health | صحة siha "health" |
| Word | Meaning | Original Form |
|---|---|---|
| ख़ुश خوش khush | happy | خوشحال khushal |
| दर्द درد dard | pain | درد dərd |
| बदन بدن badan | body | بدن bədən |
| शायद شاید shayad | maybe | شاید shayad |
| हमेशा ہمیشہ hamesha | always | همیشه həmesha |
| साल سال saal | year | سال sāl |
| गरम گرم garam | warm | گرم gərm |
| आसमान آسمان aasman | sky | آسمان aasman |
| ज़मीं زمین zameen | land | زمین zəmeen "the earth" |
| रोज़ा روزہ roza | fasting | روزه roza "a fast" |
Turkish (तुर्की ترکی Turkī)
[edit]| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| उर्दू اردو Urdu | Urdu | ordu "army" |
| क़ैंची قینچی qãincī | scissors | kaïcï in Chagatai/Proto-Mongolic |
| क़ोरमा قورمہ qormā | korma | kavurma in Turkish |
| बावर्ची باورچی bāwarchī | cook, chef | Ashchi (soupmaker) in modern Turkish |
| बेगम بیگم begam | lady | begüm |
| लाश لاش lāś | corpse |
(Turkish pron. = lesh) |
| क़ुली قلی qulī | laborer, porter | porter, servant |
| घूर گھور ghūr | a stare, staring | göz (eye) in Turkish |
Borrowings from the Colonial Era
[edit]Portuguese (पुर्तगाली پرتگالی Purtugālī)
[edit]Portuguese borrowings mostly describe household items, fruits, and religious concepts dealing with Catholicism:
Household
| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| अलमारी الماری almāri | closet, cupboard | armário |
| इस्तरी استریistrī | to iron | estirar (means to lengthen a cable) |
| इस्पात ایسپات ispāt | steel | espada "sword" |
| गमला گملا gamlā | basket | gamela "wooden trough" |
| चाबी چابی cābī | key | chave |
| जंगला جنگلا jaṅglā | window-railing | janela |
| तम्बाकू تمباکو tambākū | tobacco | tobacco |
| तौलिया تولیہ tauliyā | towel | toalha |
| फ़ीता فیتا fītā | lace, ribbon | fita |
| बराम्दा برآمدہ baramdā | verandah | varanda |
| बाल्टी بالٹی bāltī | pail | balde |
| साबुन صابن sābun | soap | sabão |
Food
| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| अनानास انناس anānās | pineapple | ananás |
| काजू کاجو kāju | cashew | caju |
| गोभी گوبھیgobhī | cabbage, cauliflower | couve |
| पाउ रोटी پاو روٹی pāu roṭī | sliced bread | pão "bread" (generic name for bread) |
| पपीता پپیتا papītā | papaya | papaia |
| साबूदाना سابودانا sābūdānā | sago | sagu |
| सलाद سلاد salād | salad | salada |
Religion
| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| क्रूस کروس krūs | cross | cruz |
| गिरजा گرجا girjā | church | igreja |
| पादरी پادری padrī | Christian priest/minister | padre |
Other
| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| अंग्रेज़ انگریز aṅgrez | English | inglês |
French (फ़्रान्सीसी فرانسیسی Fransisi)
[edit]Only a handful of French borrowings are still used in Hindi today.
| Word | Meaning | Original form |
|---|---|---|
| कारतूस کارتوس kārtūs | cartridge | cartouche |
| रेस्तराँ ریستوراں restarā̃ | restaurant | restaurant |
English (अंग्रेज़ी انگریزی Aṅgrezī)
[edit]Most borrowed words of European origin in Hindi-Urdu were imported through English and involve civic and household concepts:
Civic Life
| Word | Original form |
|---|---|
| अफ़सर افسر afsar | officer |
| जेल جیل jel | jail |
| डॉक्टर ڈاکٹر ḍôktar | doctor |
| पुलिस پولیس pulis | police |
| बैंक بینک baiṅk | bank |
| वोट ووٹ voṭ | vote |
| स्कूल اسکول skūl/iskūl | school |
Household
| Word | Original form |
|---|---|
| कप کپ kap | cup |
| गिलास گلاس gilās | glass |
| टेबल ٹیبل ṭebal | table |
| बॉक्स بکس bôks | box |
| लालटेन لالٹین lālṭen | lantern |
| कनस्तर کنستر kanastar | canister |
See also
[edit]- Hindustani etymology
- Hindustani grammar
- Hindustani orthography
- Hindustani phonology
- Hindi-Urdu kinship terms
References
[edit]- ^ Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1971). Current Trends in Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 688. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
This Proto-Prakrit differs from Sanskrit partly in the phonology and the vocabulary which are common to all modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars.
- ^ Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780415135405. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
The languages share a virtually identical grammar and also possess a very large body of common vocabulary which consists mainly of words used in everyday, normal conversation.
- ^ Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780415135405. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
In additional, although Urdu and Hindi share a large number of colloquial words, formal and literary Hindi and Urdu can differ markedly in terms of vocabulary. For higher registers, Urdu still continues to draw on Perso-Arabic resources, but Hindi turns to Sanskrit.
- ^ Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9780191533082. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
Considered from a historical point of view, the Hindustani-Hindi-Urdu complex developed out of a common broadly-spoken lingua franca that came to be used through much of north and central India from the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries during the dynasties of Muslim rulers that pre-dated the Mughal rule. During this time, Persian was in force as the official language of administration and writing but was supplemented by a mixture of the speech of the Delhi area ('Khari Boli', which had Sanskrit as its ultimate ancestor) together with many Persian loanwords as very general means of oral communication among different parts of the Muslim-controlled territories. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, this form of speech was patronized by the rulers of various southern kingdoms and resulted in the growth of an early literature in a language known as Dakhini or southern Hindi-Urdu.
- ^ a b Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
Then, about seven centuries ago, the dialects of Hindi spoken in the region of Delhi began to undergo a linguistic change. In the villages, these dialects continued to be spoken much as they had been for centuries. But around Delhi and other urban areas, under the influence of the Persian-speaking Sultans and their military administration, a new dialect began to emerge which would be called Urdu. While Urdu retained the fundamental grammar and basic vocabulary of its Hindi parent dialects, it adopted the Persian writing system, "Nastaliq" and many additional Persian vocabulary words. Indeed, the great poet Amir Khusro (1253-1325) contributed to the early development of Urdu by writing poems with alternating lines of Persian and Hindi dialect written in Persian script. What began humbly as a hodge-podge language spoken by the Indian recruits in the camps of the Sultan's army, by the Eighteenth Century had developed into a sophisticated, poetic language. It is important to note that over the centuries, Urdu continued to develop side by side with the original Hindi dialects, and many poets have written comfortably in both. Thus the distinction between Hindi and Urdu was chiefly a question of style. A poet could draw upon Urdu's lexical richness to create an aura of elegant sophistication, or could use the simple rustic vocabulary of dialect Hindi to evoke the folk life of the village. Somewhere in the middle lay the day to day language spoken by the great majority of people. This day to day language was often referred to by the all-encompassing term "Hindustani."
- ^ Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). Hindi and Urdu Since 1800. Heritage Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 9788170261629. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (1 January 2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan. p. 243. ISBN 9788125025962. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ George, Rosemary Marangoly (21 November 2013). Indian English and the Fiction of National Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 9781107729551. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
=Elsewhere Gandhi advocated for both Hindi and Hindustani (an amalgam of Hindi and Persianized Urdu that was in use in the north and could be written in either Nagri or Urdu/Persian script). In 1945, Gandhi resigned from the Hindi Sahitya when it advocated that Hindi was to be written exclusively in the Devanagri script. Over time, as both Hindi and Urdu became increasingly linked with Hindu and Muslim identity respectively, Hindustani had few advocates in India with voices powerful enough to drown out the opposition to it, especially after the trauma of partition. Hindi was deliberately Sanskritized to underline its Hindu roots and to create a purer etymology for the language.
- ^ Everaert, Christine (2010). Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu. Brill. p. 268. ISBN 9789004177314. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
According to some, Pakistani Urdu has been following the path of religious fanatics in the last twenty-five to thirty years, removing Hindi words from Urdu and replacing them by Persian and Arabic words. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where Pakistanis go in huge numbers to work during several years of their lives and who sponsor the conservative madaris, are taking the blame for this evolution. The foreign labourers returning to Pakistan after several years in Saudi Arabic and neighbouring countries are said to have been indoctrinated by their Arab hosts.
- ^ Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 9780191533082. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
In their formal spoken and written forms, Hindi and Urdu share a common grammar and much basic vocabulary. When Hindi and Urdu are spoken informally by most of the population, the differences present and clearly discernible in formal language tend to disappear to a very significant extent, and the two varieties become both mutually intelligible and often difficult to tell apart. This frequently used, colloquial form of Hindi and Urdu used in everyday conversation by the majority of speakers has in the past regularly been referred to with the term 'Hindustani'. It is also the form of language standardly used in Bollywood films, which are widely enjoyed by speakers of both Hindi and Urdu.
- ^ Patel, Aakar. "Kids have it right: boundaries of Urdu and Hindi are blurred". Firstpost. Network 18. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
Cartoon Network, Pogo and the rest were available in English also, of course. However, according to a cable operator from Allama Iqbal Town also quoted in the story, Pakistani children preferred their cartoons in Hindi. This is true of India also, where children including those studying in English schools, watch their cartoons only in Hindi.
- ^ Kothari, Rita; Snell, Rupert (2011). Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341639-5.
- ^ "Hindi, Hinglish: Head to Head". read.dukeupress.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
- ^ Salwathura, A. N. "Evolutionary development of ‘hinglish’language within the indian sub-continent." International Journal of Research-GRANTHAALAYAH. Vol. 8. No. 11. Granthaalayah Publications and Printers, 2020. 41-48.
- ^ Vanita, Ruth (2009-04-01). "Eloquent Parrots; Mixed Language and the Examples of Hinglish and Rekhti". International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter (50): 16–17.
- ^ Singh, Rajendra (1985-01-01). "Modern Hindustani and Formal and Social Aspects of Language Contact". ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 70 (1): 33–60. doi:10.1075/itl.70.02sin. ISSN 0019-0829.