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Irish clans

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James O'Higgins Norman receives a presentation from the Prince of Ó Murchadha (Murphy) Clan at Annual Clans Dinner in the Mansion House Dublin, April 2014. Also in the photograph is Kathryn Simms of Trinity College Dublin.

Irish clans are traditional kinship groups sharing a common surname and heritage and existing in a lineage-based society, originating prior to the 17th century.[1] A clan (or fine in Irish, plural finte) included the chief and his patrilineal relatives;[2] however, Irish clans also included unrelated clients of the chief.[3] These unrelated clients and their agnatic descendants were ineligible to be elected chief, but nonetheless assumed the name of the leading lineage as a show of allegiance.[4]

Many genealogies have been compiled over the centuries purporting to trace the ancestry of these clans. Among them are genealogies in Rawlinson B 502, the Book of Ballymote, the Book of Lecan, the Leabhar Mór na nGenealach compiled by Dubhaltach MacFhirbisigh, and the Ó Cléirigh Book of Genealogies. In all of these cases, the genealogies listed state the agnatic descent of the chiefs and chieftains, and not necessarily every member of the clan.

Definition of "clan"

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The Irish word clann is a borrowing from the Latin planta, meaning 'a plant, an offshoot, offspring, a single child or children, by extension race or descendants'.[5] For instance, the O'Daly family were poetically known as Clann Dalaigh, from a remote ancestor called Dalach.[5]

Clann was used in the later Middle Ages to provide a plural for surnames beginning with Mac meaning 'son of'.[5] For example, "Clann Cárthaigh" meant the men of the MacCarthy family and "Clann Suibhne" meant the men of the MacSweeny family.[5] Clann was also used to denote a subgroup within a wider surname, the descendants of a recent common ancestor, such as the Clann Aodha Buidhe or the O'Neills of Clandeboy, whose ancestor was Aodh Buidhe who died in 1298.[5] Such a "clan", if sufficiently closely related, could have common interests in landownership, but any political power wielded by their chief was territorially based.[5]

From ancient times, Irish society was organised around traditional kinship groups or clans. These clans traced their origins to larger pre-surname population groupings or clans such as Uí Briúin in Connacht, Eóganachta and Dál gCais in Munster, Uí Néill in Ulster, and Fir Domnann in Leinster.[6] Within these larger groupings there tended to be one sept (division) who through war and politics became more powerful than others for a period of time and the leaders of some were accorded the status of royalty in Gaelic Ireland. Some of the more important septs to achieve this power were O'Connor in Connacht, MacCarthy of Desmond and O'Brien of Thomond in Munster, Ó Neill of Clandeboy in Ulster, and MacMorrough Kavanagh in Leinster.

The largely symbolic role of High king of Ireland tended to rotate among the leaders of these royal clans.[7] The larger or more important clans were led by a taoiseach or chief who had the status of royalty and the smaller and more dependent clans were led by chieftains. Under Brehon law, the leaders of Irish clans were appointed by their kinsmen as custodians of the clan and were responsible for maintaining and protecting their clan and its property. The clan system formed the basis of society up to the 17th century.[8]

Origins

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The O'Rahilly doctrine

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According to T. F. O'Rahilly, in his works Goides and Their Predecessors and later Early Irish History, there were a total of four waves of Celtic invasions of the British Isles and that the first three of these were pre-Gaelic.[9][10] According to O'Rahilly, these were people who had largely remained unconquered by the Romans whose territory was mostly restricted to the broad plains of England. A larger part of England remained out of the control of the West Germanic people who invaded after the imperial collapse of Roman Britain and who founded the English nation.[11]

O'Rahilly's version of the origins of the Irish, as supported by C. Thomas Cairney and John Grenham is as follows: The first of the Celtic invaders of Ireland were known as the Cruthin who arrived between 800 and 500 BC.[11]

The second wave of Celts to come to Ireland were known as the Erainn and this is supposedly where the Gaelic name for Ireland, Erin, originated from. These people arrived between 500 and 100 BC. They came from the area which is today known as Belgium and had superior iron weaponry, and thus eventually reduced the Irish Cruthin to tributary status. The third wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland came from Continental Europe during the first century BC and this was probably because of pressure from the Romans on the south of Gaul. These people were known as the Dumnonii and gave their name to Devon in England. Their most powerful branch in Ireland was the Laigin who gave their name to Leinster. A branch of the Irish group of the Dumnonii settled just to the south of Dumbarton in Scotland and were the ancestors of the Strathclyde-Britons.[12]

The fourth and last major Celtic settlements in Ireland took place around 50 BC. This was directly because of Roman attempts to dominate the Gauls of Continental Europe. This included, among others, a group known as the Feni who came to Ireland directly from the Continent and according to tradition landed in south Kerry and the Boyne estuary. The earlier inhabitants of the country fiercely resisted the newcomers who were referred to as the Gaeil because they spoke the Gaelic language. The power and influence of the Gaeils gradually spread over the next three centuries, northwards, from Kerry into Tipperary and Limerick, as well as to the west into Galway and Roscommon.[clarification needed] By the 5th century they were dominant in most of Ireland and had established dynasties and tribal groups. These groups determined the Irish politics and culture until the Norman invasion of Ireland which took place during the late 12th century.[13]

Modern opinion

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Map of Ireland AD 900, with major kingdoms and principal Viking towns

O'Rahilly's version of history has been questioned by archaeologists and historians who have played down the role of the Cruthin as invaders, including by Ian Adamson.[14] O'Rahilly's history has been entirely unaccepted by some historians including Francis John Byrne.[15] According to Myles Dillon and Nora K. Chadwick, while O'Rahilly's version of history has been accepted by some scholars and dismissed by others, it is an entirely traditional history that he had sourced from Lebor Gabála Érenn which was a historic manuscript written in the 11th century, also known as the Book of the Invasions of Ireland, and not historic facts based on contemporary evidence.[16] J. P. Mallory stated that O'Rahilly has argued that this manuscript showed that the medieval people of Ireland had seen a series of invasions from whom various dynasties and families might have traced their origins to.[17]

According to Mallory, Ireland may have been inhabited by Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) hunters, but that the evidence for this is only a few pieces of flint.[18] The first actual evidence of human residence in Ireland dates to around 8000 BC.[19] Evidence of the first Neolithic farmers in Ireland dates to around 4000 BC.[20] There is little evidence of a warrior elite in Ireland before 1500 BC and evidence for this appears during the Bronze Age where everyone of a wealthy class had weaponry.[21] The Irish language first appeared from between 700/600 BC and 400 AD during the Iron Age.[22] During this time, the Irish people came into contact with Roman traders.[23]

According to the writers of Ulster: An Illustrated History, there is evidence for the Ulaid who are referred to as the Erainn by some genealogists which is also the name given on Ptolemy's map of Ireland which dates from the second century AD for the Iverni who lived in County Cork, as well as being the origin of the name for Ireland. The centre of the Ulaid's land was in the Diocese of Down. The main population group of the Ulaid was the Cruthin whose territory was in the Diocese of Connor and Dromore. There is also evidence for the Loígis in Leinster and the Cíarraige in Munster who also belong to this group and it is possible that their ancestors in Ireland were pre-Celtic.[24] It is also possible to identify from Ptolemy's map the Dál Riata of Antrim who later founded a powerful kingdom in Argyll, Scotland.[25] The 11th century Lebor Gabála Érenn or Book of the Invasions of Ireland, describes a series of failed invasions of Ireland before settlement in the 8th century.[26] However, by the 8th century battles in Ireland were not between the natives and invaders but between tribes and dynasties for control of different parts of the island.[24] Donnchadh Ó Corráin put the evidence for the Irish naitional identity back to the 7th century emphasising the impact that Christianity had on the people there.[27]

In 1002, the Uí Néill lost the high kingship of Ireland to the leader of the Dal gCais or Dalcassians, Brian Boru. It was during the century of declining Uí Néill dominance that surnames first started being used in Ireland. This meant that Ireland was one of the first countries in Europe to start using surnames. Descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages, who was the ancestor of the Uí Néill dynasty, include people with the surnames O'Boyle, O'Connor and O'Donnell. From the Dal gCais or Dalcassians came the surnames O'Brien and Kennedy.[28]

Social structure

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Map of Ireland with tribes and petty kingdoms, AD 800

Within the Gaeil there was distinction between the tribes of the south from those of the north, and also from those of the west. The tribes in the south called themselves the Eoghanacht and in about the year 400 AD they established at Cashel a dynasty which held power throughout most of southern Ireland from the 5th to 12th centuries. The Munster families of O'Sullivan, MacCarthy and O'Connell claim descent from the Eoghanacht.[13]

In the midlands of Ireland, the Gaeil tribes were known as Connachta and their name continues in the modern province of Connacht. The most important of the Connacta tribes was the Uí Néill who claimed descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages. Niall's brothers included Ailill, Brion and Fiachra who were founders of the important Connachta tribes of Ui Ailella, Uí Briúin and Uí Fiachrach.[13]

Although the Eoghanacht and Uí Néill were the most powerful tribal groups in Ireland, there were others who were locally powerful including the Oirialla in the north-east where they controlled what is now the counties of Tyrone, Armagh, Fermanagh and Monaghan. There was also the Ulaidh who inhabited what is now the counties of Down and Antrim.[13]

Within these large areas there were up to 150 small divisions known as túatha and the names of many of these are reflected today in the names of the Irish baronies that make up the modern counties. Each túath had a ruler or petty king who owed allegiance to a more powerful king who was over-king of three or more túatha. This over-king would in turn be subordinate to the king of a province, usually either the Eoghanacht or Uí Néill.[13]

The succession of kings or chiefs was governed by a system known as Tanistry whereby after a chief had died, the new chief would be elected from all agnatic cousins descended from a patrilineal grandfather or great-grandfather.[29][30] However, according to Eoin MacNeill, the system known as tanistry which also took place before the position of king or chief had become vacant is not found in records until the time of feudalism in Ireland which was not until the time of the Normans, and it was preceded by the similar system known as Rigdomna but which took place only after the position of king or chief had become vacant.[30] This theory however, was disputed by Gearóid Mac Niocaill who stated that there is no good evidence to support that the usage of the term Rigdomna in early medieval Ireland was any different to that of tanaise (Tanistry) in late medieval Ireland and that the two terms were synonymous with each other. Although Mac Niocaill did state that MacNeill was correct in identifying a number of cases where Rigdomna was limited to a four generation group in early medieval Ireland but in late medieval Ireland it was almost always the son, brother or nephew of the king.[31]

See also: List of Irish kingdoms and Gaelic nobility of Ireland

Tribes of the Cruthin

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As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Cruthin were the first Celts to settle in Ireland between about 800 and 500 BC.[32] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Cruthin were the first of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, the existence of all three of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[33]

Tribes of the Erainn

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As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Erainn were the second wave of Celts to settle in Ireland between about 500 and 100 BC.[36] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Erainn were the second of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Clann Choinleagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[33]

Tribes of the Dumnonii or Laigin

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As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Dumnonii or Laigin were the third wave of Celts to settle in Ireland during the first century BC.[47] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Dumnonii or Laigin were the third of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Ciarraighe Loch na nAirne and the Feara Cualann, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[33]

Tribes of the Gaels or Gaeils

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As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the Gaels or Gaeils were the fourth and final wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland which took place during the first century BC.[61] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Gaels or Gaeils were the fourth of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Clann Cholmáin, Cineal Laoghaire and the Muintear Tadhagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[33]

The North Gaels

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The South Gaels

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Vikings and Normans in Ireland

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Ireland c. 1100 before the Norman invasion showing dynasties and tribes

Vikings and Normans are Ethnically linked in ancestry from the 9th to 11th centuries and who raided and settled in Britain and Ireland. In Ireland the Vikings became completely Gaelicized and established the first towns. The Normans invaded and conquered England in 1066 and later had similar success invading Ireland in the late 12th century. The Normans were the first people to introduce the mounted knight. In Ireland they were influenced just as much as they themselves influenced and have been described as having become "more Irish than the Irish".[72]

Viking families in Ireland

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The following three Irish families are believed to be of Viking descent: the Clan Fearghaill whose chiefs were the O'Hallorans, the MacCotters, and the O'Doyles.[72][F]

Norman families in Ireland

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The following surnames found in Ireland are believed to be of Norman origin and to have arrived following the Norman invasion of Ireland: Barry, Branne, Burke, Butler, Condon, Cusak, Dalton, Darcy, de Covcy, Dillon, Fagun, Fitzgerald, MacGibbon, French, Hackett, Jordan, Keating, Lacy, Lynch, MacCostello, Martin, Nugent, Power, Purcell, Rothes, Sarsfield, Wall.[73]

The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been of Flemish origin: Tobin, Flemming, Prendergast.[73]

The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been of Welsh origin: Roche, Blake, Joyce, MacQuillan, Rice, Taffe, Walsh, Savage.[73]

End of the clan system

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Ireland c. 1500 at the beginning of the Tudor period

In the 16th century, English common law was introduced throughout Ireland, along with a centralised royal administration in which the county and the sheriff replaced the "country" and the clan chief.[74]

When the Kingdom of Ireland was created in 1541, the Dublin administration wanted to involve the Gaelic chiefs into the new entity, creating new titles for them such as the Baron Upper Ossory, Earl of Tyrone, and Baron Inchiquin. In the process, they were granted new coats of arms from 1552. The associated policy of surrender and regrant involved a change to succession to a title by the European system of primogeniture, and not by the Irish tanistry, where a group of male cousins of a chief were eligible to succeed by election.

The early 17th century was a watershed in Ireland. It marked the destruction of Ireland's ancient Gaelic aristocracy following the Tudor re-conquest and cleared the way for the Plantation of Ulster.[75] In 1607 the senior Gaelic chiefs of Ulster left Ireland to recruit support in Spain but failed, and instead eventually arrived in Rome where they remained for the rest of their lives (see Flight of the Earls). After this point, the English authorities in Dublin established real control over all of Ireland for the first time, bringing a centralised government to the entire island, and successfully disarmed the native clans and their lordships.[76]

Later developments and "revival"

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Main articles: List of Irish clans, Clans of Ireland, and Standing Council of Irish Chiefs and Chieftains
President of Ireland, Michael D. Higgins, centre, receives the Order of Clans of Ireland from Michael J. Egan, right, Cathoirleach of Clans of Ireland

A number of modern Irish clan societies were former or reformed in the latter half of the 20th century.[citation needed] Today, such groups are organised in Ireland and in many other parts of the world.[citation needed] Several independent Irish clans have sprung up with international affiliation and membership from across the global Irish diaspora for the purposes of helping others with preserving history, culture, and the pursuit of genealogy.[citation needed] In 1989, the private organisation Clans of Ireland was formed under the leadership of Rory O'Connor, "Chieftain" of the "O'Connor Kerry Clan", with the purpose of creating and maintaining a register of clans.[citation needed]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Although manuscript genealogies, including the Book of Ballymote and Great Book of Lecan, show that the Scottish clans of MacDonald, MacAlister and MacDougall were paternally descended from Colla Uais who was one of The Three Collas who founded Oirghialla (Airgíalla) in Ireland,[58][59] a Y-DNA study has shown that they might have been paternally descended from Norsemen.[60]
  2. ^ The medieval genealogies, including Leabhar na nGenealach ("Book of Genealogies") and the Annals of the Four Masters, record three main branches of the Uí Briúin: the Uí Briúin Bréifne, the Uí Briúin Seóla, and the Uí Briúin Aí. A Y-DNA study of men with the surnames believed to have sprung from these branches suggests that the medieval genealogies are mostly accurate in regards to the genealogies of the Uí Briúin Bréifne and the Uí Briúin Seóla, and the surnames that came from them, but that there were notable inconsistencies with the medieval genealogies of the Uí Briúin Aí and the Y-DNA, and the surnames which are alleged to have sprung from it, although some parts of the Uí Briúin Aí medieval genealogies have shown to be consistent with the Y-DNA.[63]
  3. ^ The chiefs of the Scottish clan of Munro or Monro are traditionally descended from the O'Cahans of the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[67] However, a Y-DNA study has shown that the Munro chiefs were paternally distantly related to the O'Driscolls of Cork.[69] Another Y-DNA study has shown that people with the surnames associated with the O'Cahains or O'Cathains of Ulster, some concentrated in County Londonderry and Dungiven where the clan was centred, match with the historical records as descendants of the O'Cathains of Ulster.[70]
  4. ^ The MacLachlans, Lamonts, MacSorleys, MacNeills, MacEwens, MacQueens, MacSweens are all Scottish clans who are believed to be descended from the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[67]
  5. ^ The chiefs of the Scottish clan of Ross are believed to be descended from the O'Beolans of the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[67]
  6. ^ The chiefs of the Scottish clans of Gunn, MacLeod, MacCorquodale, and Ruthven are also believed to be descended from Viking settlers.[72]

References

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  1. ^ Nicholls (2003). pp. 8–11
  2. ^ Aitchison, N. B. (1994). "Kingship, Society, and Sacrality: Rank, Power, and Ideology in Early Medieval Ireland". Traditio. 49: 46. doi:10.1017/S036215290001299X.
  3. ^ Bhreathnach (2014). p. 79
  4. ^ Nash, Catherine (2006). "Irish origins, Celtic origins". Irish Studies Review. 14 (1): 11–37.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Connolly (2007). pp. 101–102
  6. ^ Ó Muraíle, (2003).
  7. ^ Curley, (2004).
  8. ^ Duggan (2013). p. 116
  9. ^ Brady, Ciaran; O'Dowd, Mary; Walter, Brian (1989). pp. 22 and 26
  10. ^ Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora (2000). p. 5
  11. ^ a b Cairney (1989). p. 17
  12. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 18
  13. ^ a b c d e Grenham, John (1993). pp. 18-19
  14. ^ Brady, Ciaran; O'Dowd, Mary; Walter, Brian (1989). pp. 22 and 26. Quoting: Adamson, Ian (1974). Cruthin: The Ancient Kindred. Newtownards. p. 12
  15. ^ Brady, Ciaran; O'Dowd, Mary; Walter, Brian (1989). p. 22. Quoting: Byrne. F. J. (1965). The Ireland of Saint Columba. Historical Studies, 5, p. 38
  16. ^ Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora (2000). pp. 5-6
  17. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 206
  18. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 37
  19. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 40
  20. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 72
  21. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 129
  22. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 157
  23. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 158
  24. ^ a b Brady, Ciaran; O'Dowd, Mary; Walter, Brian (1989). p. 27
  25. ^ Duffy (2011). pp. 14-15
  26. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 201
  27. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 291
  28. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2017). p. 215
  29. ^ Fisher, Joseph (1877). The History of Land Holding in Ireland. London: Longmans Green. pp. 11-16. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  30. ^ a b MacNeill, Eoin (September 1919). "The Irish Law of Dynastic Succession". An Irish Quarterly Review. 8 (31): 367–382. JSTOR 30092775.
  31. ^ Mac Niocaill, Gearóid (1968). "The 'Heir Designate' In Early Medieval Ireland". Irish Jurist. 3 (2): 326–329. JSTOR 44025906.
  32. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 51
  33. ^ a b c d Duffy (2011). pp. 14, 15, 18, 19: "This material, the most comprehensive to survive in any country of Dark Age Europe, enables us to reconstruct the political map of Ireland even at this early period".
  34. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 53
  35. ^ a b Cairney (1989). p. 54
  36. ^ a b c Cairney (1989). p. 61
  37. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 63
  38. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 63-64
  39. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 64-65
  40. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 65
  41. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 65-69
  42. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 69-70
  43. ^ a b Cairney (1989). p. 70
  44. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 70-71
  45. ^ Cairney (1989). p. 71
  46. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 71-72
  47. ^ a b c Cairney (1989). pp. 78-79
  48. ^ a b Cairney (1989). pp. 80-81
  49. ^ a b c Cairney (1989). pp. 81-82
  50. ^ O'Hart, John (1892). pp. 840-843
  51. ^ a b Cairney (1989). pp. 82-83
  52. ^ a b Cairney (1989). pp. 84-85
  53. ^ O'Hart, John (1892). pp. 692-707
  54. ^ O'Hart, John (1892). pp. 760-765
  55. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 85-87
  56. ^ O'Hart, John (1892). pp. 487-488
  57. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 87-88
  58. ^ Sellar, W.D.H. (October 1966). "The Origins and Ancestry of Somerled". The Scottish Historical Review. 45 (140): 123–142. JSTOR 25528658.
  59. ^ Moncreiffe, Iain (1982). The Highland Clans. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. pp. 127–131. ISBN 0517546590.
  60. ^ "DNA shows Celtic hero Somerled's Viking roots". The Scotsman. 26 April 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  61. ^ a b c d e Cairney (1989). pp. 93-97
  62. ^ Cairney (1989). pp. 97-101
  63. ^ "Y-DNA Sheds New Light on the Medieval Genealogies of the Uí Briúin Dynasty of Northwest Ireland, Part 2". familytreedna.com. 18 June 2024. Retrieved 18 June 2024.
  64. ^ O'Hart, John (1692). pp. 650-651
  65. ^ a b O'Hart, John (1692). pp. 632-633
  66. ^ O'Hart, John (1692). p. 491
  67. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Cairney (1989). pp. 101-121
  68. ^ O'Hart, John (1892). pp. 708-740
  69. ^ Munro, Colin (December 2015). "The Deep Ancestry of the Munros" (PDF). Newsletter of the Clan Munro (Association) Australia. Vol. 13, no. 3. Australia: Clan Munro (Association) Australia. pp. 4–5. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
  70. ^ Kane, Edward; O'Neill, Dwayne (2020). "Haplogroup S595 -DNA links the O'Cathains of Ulster: Using Lineages, Surnames and DNA as Supporting Evidence". Academia.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  71. ^ a b Cairney (1989). pp. 121-126
  72. ^ a b c Cairney (1989). pp. 127-129
  73. ^ a b c Cairney (1989). pp. 131-154
  74. ^ Connolly (2007). p. 182
  75. ^ Curley, (2004)
  76. ^ Duggan (2013). pp. 122–124

Bibliography

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