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Kingdom of Gujarat

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Kingdom of Anahilavada
(941–1139)
Kingdom of Gujarat
Gurjarā
(1139–1304)
941–1298
Royal insignia on coinage[a] of Kingdom of Gujarat
Royal insignia on coinage[a]
The Kingdom of Gujarat in 1290
The Kingdom of Gujarat in 1290
CapitalPatan
Dhavalakka (modern Dholka)
Official languagesSanskrit
Common languagesApabhramsa, Prakrit, Old Gujarati
Religion
Hinduism (official)
GovernmentMonarchy
Maharajadhiraja 
• 941–995
Mularaja (first)
• 1296–1304
Karna II (last)
(1298–1304 without throne)
History 
• Established
941
1298
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kingdom of Anahilavada
Gujarat Province (Delhi Sultanate)
Today part ofIndia

The Kingdom of Gujarat was an early medieval kingdom in Western India. The kingdom was ruled by two related dynasties, the Chaulukyas and the Vaghelas, for a period of nearly four centuries and was ultimately conquered by the Delhi Sultanate as the Gujarat Province.[1]

It was founded by Mularaja in 941 by who took over the Kingdom of Anahilavada after deposing the last king, and subdued the various chiefs of Gujarat to become the first king of all Gujarat and founding the Chaulukya dynasty.[2]

The commander of the Gujarat army, Lavanaprasada, and his son Viradhavala, also members of the Chaulukya family, became very powerful during the reign of the last Chaulukya king. Viradhavala deposed the last king, and declared himself King of Gujarat in 1244.

The kingdom was ultimately conquered by the Sultanate of Delhi between 1298 and 1304 and was annexed as the Gujarat Province. Gujarat became independent once again under the Muzaffarids as the Sultanate of Gujarat.

History

[edit]

Early rulers

[edit]
A 1010 CE copper-plate inscription from the reign of Durlabharaja

The Chaulukyas were one of the several dynasties that rose to power amid the decline of the Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakuta empires.[3] In the mid-tenth century CE, the dynasty's founder Mularaja supplanted Samantasimha, the last Chavda king.[4] According to legends, he was a nephew of Samantasimha.[5] According to the 12th century chronicler Hemachandra, Mularaja defeated Graharipu, the king of Saurashtra.[6] He also defeated the Lata Chalukya chief Barapa, aided by his son Chamundaraja.[7]

Chamundaraja succeeded Mularaja around 996 CE. During his reign, the Paramara king Sindhuraja appears to have invaded the Lata region, which was under Chaulukya suzerainty. Mularaja forced Sindhuraja to retreat; the 14th century chronicler Jayasimha Suri claims that Chamundaraja killed Sindhuraja in a battle, but this claim appears to be doubtful, as it does not appear in any earlier source.[8] Sometime before 1007 CE, the Lata region was captured by the Chalukyas of Kalyani led by Satyashraya.[9]

Around 1008 CE, Chamundaraja retired after appointing his son Vallabharaja as the next king. Legendary accounts state that he set out for a pilgrimage to Varanasi. During this journey, he was insulted by a ruler whose kingdom lay on the way to Varanasi. He returned to the Chaulukya capital, and asked his son to avenge his insult. Vallabharaja died of smallpox during a march to the enemy kingdom, which is identified as the Paramara kingdom of Malwa by some chroniclers.[10]

Chamundaraja's other son Durlabharaja became the next king in c. 1008 CE. He invaded the Lata region, and defeated the Lata Chalukya ruler Kirtiraja (or Kirtipala), who was a vassal of the Kalyani Chalukyas. However, Kirtiraja regained control of the region within a short time, before being defeated by the Paramara king Bhoja.[11]

Neighbouring rivalries

[edit]
The Somnath temple today.

Durlabharaja was succeeded by his nephew Bhima I, who faced an invasion from the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud during 1024-1025 CE. Bhima fled to Kanthkot, as Mahmud entered the Chaulukya territory unopposed and sacked the Somnath temple.[12] After Mahmud's departure, Bhima restored the Chaulukya rule. He crushed revolts by the Paramara chiefs of Arbuda, who used to serve as Chaulukya vassals.[13] Bhima also defeated and imprisoned Krishnadeva, a ruler of the Paramara branch of Bhinmal. He unsuccessfully fought against the Naddula Chahamana ruler Anahilla. Anahilla's sons Balaprasada and Jendraraja defeated Bhima and forced him to release Krishnadeva.[14] Later legendary accounts credit Bhima with a victory against Hammuka, a ruler of Sindh, although the accuracy of this claim is not certain.[15]

Semi-legendary accounts suggest that Bhima formed an alliance with the Kalachuri king Lakshmi-Karna, and the two played an important role in the downfall of the Paramara king Bhoja around 1055 CE. According to the 14th century chronicler Merutunga, Bhima and Lakshmi-Karna invaded Bhoja's kingdom of Malwa from two opposite directions, and Bhoja died of a disease during this invasion.[16] Some Chaulukya chroniclers boast that Bhima annexed Bhoja's capital Dhara or that he captured Bhoja alive, but these claims are not corroborated by historical evidence.[17] After Bhoja's death, a rivalry developed between the Bhima and Lakshmi-Karna over sharing the spoils of their victory.[18]

Bhima's son Karna succeeded him around 1064 CE. Bhoja's brother Udayaditya, supported by the Shakambhari Chahamana king Vigraharaja III, forced Karna to retreat from Malwa.[19][20] Meanwhile, the Kalachuris managed to capture the Lata region. By 1074 CE, Karna evicted the Kalachuris from Lata, and annexed the region to the Chaulukya kingdom, before losing it to one Trivikramapala within three years.[21]

The Naddula Chahamana ruler Prithvipala defeated Karna, and his successor Jojalladeva occupied the Chaulukya capital Anahilapataka, possibly when Karna was busy at another place.[22] The Shakambhari Chahamana king Durlabharaja III also appears to have achieved some military success against Karna, although the Chahamana descriptions of this victory are highly exaggerated.[23] According to legendary chronicles, Karna also defeated Bhil and Koli tribals, who used to raid the Chaulukya territories. He established a city called Karnavati after defeating a Bhil chief named Asha (Āśā). Karnavati is identified with modern Ahmedabad by some, but this is not certain.[24]

Imperial expansion

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Vishnu and attendants, Gujarat, India, Solanki period, c. 1026 AD. Dallas Museum of Art.

Karna's son Jayasimha Siddharaja (r. c. 1092–1142 CE) greatly expanded the Chaulukya power. He defeated Khangara alias Navaghana, the Chudasama king of Saurashtra.[25] The Naddula Chahamana ruler Asharaja, who had been dethroned by his rival Ratnapala, became a vassal of Jayasimha sometime before 1143 CE.[26]

Jayasimha defeated the Shakambhari Chahamana ruler Arnoraja.[27] Later, however, Jayasimha accepted Arnoraja as an ally, and the Chahamana ruler married Jayasimha's daughter Kanchanadevi.[28] The couple's son (and thus Jayasimha's grandson) Someshvara, was brought up at the Chaulukya court.[29] Someshvara's sons Prithviraja III (better known as Prithviraj Chauhan) and Hariraja were also born in Gujarat.[30]

During the 1135-1136 CE, Jayasimha annexed the Paramara kingdom of Malwa, with support from Asharaja and Arnoraja. The Paramara kings defeated by him were Naravarman and his successor Yashovarman.[31] Jayasimha continued his eastward march, and reached as far as the Chandela kingdom ruled by Madanavarman. The Chaulukya-Chandela conflict was inconclusive, with both the sides claiming victory.[32] Jayasimha also defeated several minor rulers, including Sindhuraja, who was probably a Soomra king of Sindh.[33]

Jain Shvetambara Tirthankara in Meditation, Chaulukya period now in Metropolitan Museum of Art, c. 1000 – c. 1050

Jayasimha was succeeded by his relative Kumarapala, who spent his early life in exile to avoid persecution by Jayasimha.[34] After Jayasimha's death, Kumarapala came back to the Chaulukya capital and ascended the throne in 1043 CE, with help of his brother-in-law Kanhadadeva.[35] Arnoraja opposed Kumarapala's ascension to the throne, but Kumarapala defeated him decisively.[36] Kumarapala seems to have helped Asharaja's son Katukaraja capture the throne of Naddula.[37] Katukaraja's younger brother and successor Alhanadeva continued to rule as Kumarapala's vassal.[38] Arnoraja's son Vigraharaja IV subdued Kumarapala's Chahamana feudatories at Naddula.[39] The Shakambhari Chahamana-Chaulukya relations seem to have become more cordial when Arnoraja's son (and Jayasimha's grandson) Someshvara became the Chahamana king in later years, possibly with support from Kumarapala.[40]

After Jayasimha's death, the Paramara king Jayavarman I regained control of Malwa, but he was soon dethroned by an usurper named Ballala. Kumarapala captured Malwa from Ballala, who was killed by Kumarapala's Arbuda Paramara feudatory Yashodhavala in a battle.[41] Kumarapala subdued a rebellion by his vassal Vikramasimha, a Paramara chief of Arbuda.[42] The Paramara branch at Kiradu continued to acknowledge Kumarapala's suzerainty.[43]

In the early 1160s, Kumarapala sent an army against Mallikarjuna, the Shilahara king of northern Konkana. This campaign was probably triggered by a Shilahara raid in southern Gujarat, and ended with Mallikarjuna's death.[44] Kumarapala's Naddula Chahamana feudatory Alhana put down disturbances in Saurashtra at Kumarapala's request.[45]

Historical evidence suggests that Kumarapala's empire extended from Chittor and Jaisalmer in the north to the Vindhyas and the Tapti river in the south (ignoring his raid of the Shilahara kingdom of northern Konkana). In the west, it included Kachchha and Saurashtra; in the east, it extended up to at least Vidisha (Bhilsa).[46]

Kumarapala was succeeded by Ajayapala, who retained Kumarapala's territories, but died after a short reign.[47] Ajayapala's young sons Mularaja II and Bhima II succeeded him one after other. During this period, the Ghurid king Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Chaulukya kingdom in 1178 CE. In the ensuing battle at Kasahrada (or Kayadara), Muhammad was defeated by a large army, which included loyal Chaulukya feudatories such as the Naddula Chahamana ruler Kelhanadeva, the Jalor Chahamana ruler Kirtipala, and the Arbuda Paramara ruler Dharavarsha.[48][49]

Decline

[edit]
See also: Battle of Kasahrada (1197)
class=notpageimage|
The Chaulukyas and main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[50][51]

Taking advantage of the young age of Bhima II, some provincial governors rebelled against him in order to establish independent states. His loyal Vaghela feudatory Arnoraja came to his rescue, and died fighting the rebels. Arnoraja's descendants Lavanaprasada and Viradhavala became powerful during Bhima's reign.[52]

During Bhima's reign, the Hoysala ruler Veera Ballala II seems to have raided the Lata region.[53] The Yadava ruler Bhillama V also invaded Gujarat, but was forced to retreat by Bhima's feudatory Kelhanadeva.[53] The Shakambhari Chahamana king Prithviraja III also fought with the Chaulukyas, but Bhima's general Jagaddeva managed to conclude a peace treaty with Prithviraja sometime before 1187 CE.[54]

By the mid-1190s CE, the Ghurids defeated the Prithviraja and the other major Hindu kings of northern India. On 4 February 1197 CE, the Ghurid general Qutb al-Din Aibak invaded Bhima's capital Anahilapataka, and inflicted a massive defeat on the Chaulukyas.[55] Bhima's generals Lavanaprasada and Shridhara later forced the Ghurids to retreat, and the capital was back under the Chaulukya rule by 1201 CE.[56]

Subhatavarman, the Paramara king of Malwa, invaded the Lata region around 1204 CE, taking advantage of the turmoil caused by the Ghurid invasions. He probably also sacked the Chaulukya capital Anahilapataka.[57] Once again, Lavanaprasada and Shridhara saved the kingdom by forcing Subhatavarman to retreat.[58] During 1205–1210 CE, Bhima's relative Jayantasimha (or Jayasimha) usurped the throne. In the early 1210s, Subhatavarman's successor Arjunavarman defeated Jayantasimha, and later established a matrimonial alliance with him.[58] Bhima managed to regain control of the throne during 1223–1226 CE.[59]

Meanwhile, the Yadavas invaded the southern part of the Chaulukya kingdom, led by Bhillama's successors Jaitugi and Simhana. During these invasions, the Chaulukya feudatories in the northern region of Marwar rebelled. Lavanaprasada and Viradhavala warded off the Yadava invasions, and also subdued the rebellions.[60] The Guhilas of Medapata (Guhilots of Mewar) also rebelled against Bhima sometime between 1207 and 1227 CE, and declared their independence.[61]

Establishment of Vaghela dynasty

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Balcony of Hira gate of Dabhoi fort

During the reign of Bhima II, the Vaghelas became the de facto rulers of the Chaulukya kingdom. Inscriptions at Girnar suggest that by 1231 CE (1288 VS), Lavanaprasada had assumed the title Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings"), and his son Viradhavala had assumed the title Maharaja ("great king"). However, the Vaghelas continued to nominally acknowledge Bhima and his successor Tribhuvanapala as their overlords.[62]

Viradhavala's son Visaladeva ascended the throne of Gujarat sometime around 1244 CE. How he usurped the power is uncertain: it is possible the last Chaulukya king Tribhuvanapala died heirless or was defeated by Visaladeva.[63] Visaladeva invaded Malwa, which had been weakened because of invasions from the Delhi Sultanate. He met with little resistance in Malwa, and defeated the Paramara king Jaitugideva. Visaladeva also defeated a ruler of Mewar, possibly the Guhila king Tejasimha. He repulsed some invasions from south, by the Yadavas of Devagiri. However, later, he suffered setbacks against successive Yadava kings. Possibly as a move against the Yadavas, he forged a matrimonial alliance with the Hoysalas, who were the southern neighbours of the Yadavas.[64]

Visaladeva's successor Arjunadeva ascended the throne around 1262 CE. Not much is known about the incidents of his reign, except that he suffered a defeat against the Yadavas.[65] His elder son Rama succeeded him, and ruled for a few months. Subsequently, his younger son Sarangadeva ascended the throne.[66]

Sarangadeva defeated the Paramaras and the Yadavas.[67] According to Vaghela records, sometime in or before 1285 CE, he repulsed an invasion by the Turushkas (Turkic people). Modern historians variously identify these Turushkas as Mongol raiders or Balban's forces.[68] Sarangadeva also sent an expedition against the Jethva chief Bhanu.[69]

Conquest by Delhi

[edit]
Main article: Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Gujarat

Around 1296 CE, Sarangadeva was succeeded by Rama's son Karna. In 1299, the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji sent an army to ransack Gujarat. According to multiple medieval chronicles, Karna had abducted the wife of his minister Madhava and killed Madhava's brother. In revenge, Madhava instigated Alauddin to invade Gujarat.[70][71]

In 1304, Karna lost his throne permanently after a second invasion from Delhi. According to Amir Khusrau's poem Ashiqa, the invasion resulted from a request by Karna's former wife Kamala Devi, who had been captured by Alauddin's forces during the first invasion. Eight years after being inducted into Alauddin's harem, Kamala Devi requested Alauddin to get her daughter Devala Devi from Gujarat. Although Karna agreed to the demand, Alauddin ordered his army to invade Gujarat for a second time. Ashiqa is not historically reliable, but some of the later medieval writers present its narrative as history. Other medieval chroniclers give different accounts of this incident, some of them omitting the bit about Kamala Devi's request.[72]

Architecture

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Chaulukya style

[edit]
Main article: Chaulukya style

Māru-Gurjara architecture, or "Chaulukya style",[73][74][75] is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty).[76][77] Although originating as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples and, mainly under Jain patronage, later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world.[77]

Vaghela architecture

[edit]
Ceiling of one of Dilwara Jain Temples

A number of temples were built during their reign by wealthy merchants and ministers, Vastupala and Tejapala who also served as ministers and generals, including one of Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu and Girnar Jain temples.[78] In fact, Kirtikaumudi, the biography of Vastupala, written by Someshvara, a royal priest, is also an important source of the history of the dynasty.[79][80] Visala-deva constructed or restored the fort of Dharbhavati (Dabhoi) which is well known for its elaborate carvings and gates.[80] He built pratolis, temples and vapis in Darbhavati (Dabhoi) completed by about 1255 CE. Of its four gates, Hira Bhagol (with its adjacent temples) may have been built during Visaladeva's reign while three other gates may have been built by Tejapala, as indicated in Jain prabandhas.[81] The Satmukhi stepwell in Dabhoi is a temple built over a tank with seven wells ascribed to him.[82]

The Ra Khengar stepwell between Vanthali and Junagadh is stated to be constructed by Tejapala.[82] The Madhavav in Wadhwan was built in 1294 AD (Vikram Samvat 1350) by Nagar Brahmin Madhav and Keshav, the ministers in court of the last Vaghela ruler Karna. The kunda at Kapadvanj was built about this period.[81] The Batris Kotha stepwell in Kapadvanj may have belonged to the 13th century due to its similarity with the Madha and Vikia stepwells.[82]

Temples

[edit]

The building activities of Vastupala and Tejpala are mentioned in inscriptions as well as in works of contemporary writers. These works include Someshvara's Kirtikaumudi, Jayasimhasuri's Shakunika-vihara-prashasti, Udayaprabhasuri's Dharmabhyudaya-mahakavya and Sukrita-kirtikallolini, Arisimha's Sukritasamkirtanam, Narendraprabhasuri's prashashti, Vijayasenasuri's Revantagiri-rasu and Palhanaputra's Abu-rasa. Later works include Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani (1309 CE), Jinaprabha's Vividh-tirtha-kalpa (early 14th century), Rajashekharasuri's Prabandha-kosha (1349 CE) and Jinaharshasuri's Vastupala-charitam (1441 CE).[81]

Early Vaghela phase

[edit]

More than fifty temples were built by Vastupala and Tejapala apart from large number of renovations and image installations. The Idramandapa and six other temples were built by Vastupala on Shatrunjaya hill. He also built Vastupla-vihara and Parshwanatha temple on Girnar. He also built Adinatha temple at Dholka and Ashtapada-prasada at Prabhas. Tejapala built Asraja-vihara at Anahilapataka and Junagadh for merit of his father. He also built Neminath Temple at Dholka and Adinath Temple at Prabhas. In memory of his mother Kumaradevi, he built temples at Khambhat and Dabhoi. He also built temples at Tharad, Karnavati, Godhra, Shatrunjaya, Girnar, Pavagadh, Navsari and several other places. His greatest temple is the Neminath Temple at Mount Abu.[81]

Of all these temples built by the brothers, only few survives such as Vastupala-vihara at Girnar (1231 CE), Neminath Temple at Abu and the temple at Prabhas. Other extant temples of this period is Sambhavanatha temple at Kumbhariya, Jain marble temple at Sarotra and Panch-Pandava Temple on Shatrunjaya.[81]

Late Vaghela phase

[edit]

The Vaghela princes had patronised the construction of temples and civic architecture. Lavanaprasada built Analeshwara and Salakshaneshwara temples for merit of his parents. His son Viramdeva had built Viramaeshwara temple. The temples of Rupanarayana and Balanarayana are mentioned in Kadi grant of 1261 CE.[81]

Jain merchant Jadagusha, as mentioned in his biography Jagaducharita by Sarvanandasuri, built and renovated large number of Jain as well as Brahminical temples and civic constructions. His some notable constructions between 1250 and 1270 CE are Rishabha temple at Dhanka, a temple with 24 devkulikas at Wadhwan, a temple on Shatrunjaya hill and a temple with 52 devakulika at Sevadi. Pethada-rasu (1304 CE), Munisundarasuri's Gurvavali (c. 1459 CE), Ratnamandira Gani's Upadeshatarangini (c. 15th century) and Ratnamandana's Sukritasagara (c. 15th century) are important sources of life and works of Minister Pethada of Mandavagadh. He had built 84 Jain temples. His notable temples are at Shatrunjaya, Prabhasa, Dholka and Salakshanapura built around 1264 CE. Shravaka Jhalli built the temples of Parshwanatha and Jhalasara lake during this period.[81]

The extant temples of this phase include the Kalika temple and Vaidyanatha Temple at Dabhoi, the old shrine at Motab, the Jain temple and Nilkantha temple at Miyani and the Jain temple of Kanthkot in Kutch.[81]

Coinage

[edit]

During Vaghela rule, the Gadhaiya coins increasingly lost its intrinsic value which was stayed unchanged for two centuries under Chaulukyas. The 4.4 g billon coin of Chaulukya had stable silver content of 2.02 g of which reduced to 1.83 g during Visala-deva's coins and its successive issues has less content, as low as 0.73 g. During stable net content of silver, the Gadhaiya coins were used in international trade from Afghanistan to Deccan. As its intrinsic value decreased, its circulation shrank to the area of modern Kheda district and its surroundings. These coins followed the tanka coins of Delhi. The coins of Visala-deva are mentioned as Visalamalla priya dra (dra stands for dramma) or Visala priya dra or Visalapri dra in various literary sources and epigraphs. The coins of Saranga-deva and Karna-deva had an elephant facing left on obverses and legends on the reverses. The legends reads shri saranga-de.. and Shri karna/devasya or Shri karna/devasa. Another coins of Karna-deva has Kumbha (vase) on its obverse enclosed in border made of dots and lines while reverse has the same legend. Another type of his coins of copper depicted lion facing left on obverse and the same legend on reverse.[80]

List of rulers

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Serial No. Ruler Reign (CE)
1 Mularaja 940–995
2 Chamundaraja 996–1008
3 Vallabharaja 1008
4 Durlabharaja 1008–1022
5 Bhima I 1022–1064
6 Karna I 1064–1092
7 Jayasimha Siddharaja 1092–1142
8 Kumarapala 1142–1171
9 Ajayapala 1171–1175
10 Mularaja II 1175–1178
11 Bhima II 1178–1240
12 Tribhuvanapala 1240–1244
13 Visala-deva 1244–1262
14 Arjuna-deva 1262–1275
15 Rama 1275
16 Saranga-deva 1275–1296
17 Karna II 1296–1304

Notes

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  1. ^ The royal insignia of the Kingdom of Gujarat under the Chaulukyas (Solankis) as observed on the reverse of coins issued. The depiction is of a stylised fire alter.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India Volume 2. p. 311. The kingdom of Gujarat was founded by Mūlarājā (A. D. 941-93), and was conquered by Alā-ud-din in A.D. 1298.
  2. ^ K. S. Singh (2003). Gujarat: Part 1. p. 446. Gujarat as an independent united dominion existed somewhere in 942 A.D., with its first ruler as Mulraj. Prior to this Gujarat did not have a separate entity and the area comprised different territorial units viz., Lat Pradesh, Saurashtra and Abu. Mulraj by his strength and valour defeated all these chiefs and became the first king of Gujarat and ruled from 942 to 995 A.D
  3. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 1–4.
  4. ^ John E. Cort 1998, p. 87.
  5. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 23–24.
  6. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 25.
  7. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 34.
  8. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 34–35.
  9. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 35.
  10. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 36–39.
  11. ^ Krishna Narain Seth 1978, pp. 136–137.
  12. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 43–45.
  13. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 49–50.
  14. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 50–51.
  15. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 48–49.
  16. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 52–53.
  17. ^ Krishna Narain Seth 1978, p. 184.
  18. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 54-55.
  19. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 127.
  20. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 57–58.
  21. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 59–60.
  22. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 60.
  23. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 125.
  24. ^ Tommaso Bobbio 2015, p. 164.
  25. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 69.
  26. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 70.
  27. ^ Dasharatha Sharma 1959, p. 47.
  28. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 71.
  29. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 156.
  30. ^ Dasharatha Sharma 1959, p. 69.
  31. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 74–75.
  32. ^ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 133.
  33. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 80–81.
  34. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 92.
  35. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 99–103.
  36. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 106–108.
  37. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 253.
  38. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 254.
  39. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 149.
  40. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 109.
  41. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 112.
  42. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 109–110.
  43. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 111.
  44. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 113-114.
  45. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 116.
  46. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 119.
  47. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 130–131.
  48. ^ Dasharatha Sharma 1959, p. 138.
  49. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. 259.
  50. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, pp. 37, 147: map XIV.3.
  51. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (25 July 2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. Penguin UK. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-14-196655-7.
  52. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 139.
  53. ^ a b Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 140.
  54. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 141.
  55. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 143.
  56. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 145-146.
  57. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 146.
  58. ^ a b Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 148.
  59. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 160–161.
  60. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 149–155.
  61. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 156.
  62. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 163–164.
  63. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 173.
  64. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 174.
  65. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 180.
  66. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 181.
  67. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 181–182.
  68. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 183.
  69. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 184.
  70. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 192–193.
  71. ^ Aditya Behl 2012, p. 190.
  72. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, pp. 190–194.
  73. ^ Gujarat. Gujarat Vishvakosh Trust. 2007. p. 404. Architecture of the temples, forts, step-wells and lakes was highly developed in Gujarat during the Solanki period (942 to 1304 A.D.). Temples of this period resemble the temples of Rajasthan. The temple architecture style developed during this period is known as 'Muru-Gurjar' style. Generally the temples of Gujarat of this period are known as the temples of Chaulukya style.
  74. ^ Hegewald 2011, note 3.
  75. ^ Michell (1977) uses "Solanki style", while Harle (1994) is reluctant to tie the style to a specific name.
  76. ^ Michell 1977, p. 123.
  77. ^ a b Hegewald 2011, p. [page needed].
  78. ^ Kristi L. Wiley (2009). The A to Z of Jainism. Scarecrow Press. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-0-8108-6821-2. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  79. ^ Maurice Winternitz; Moritz Winternitz (1985). A History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 103–. ISBN 978-81-208-0056-4. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  80. ^ a b c Amol N. Bankar 2012, pp. 23–29.
  81. ^ a b c d e f g h Dhaky, Madhusudan A. (1961). Deva, Krishna (ed.). "The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat". Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad. 3. Bhopal: Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad: 66–69, 81–82.
  82. ^ a b c Jutta Jain-Neubauer 1981, p. 22.

Bibliography

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