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Silent Parade
Part of the anti-lynching movement
A large group of people, wearing suits, marching in an orderly fashion down a wide street
The 1917 Silent Parade in New York City
DateJuly 28, 1917
Location
Fifth Avenue, New York City, United States
Caused byMurders of African Americans from lynchings and in the East St. Louis massacre
GoalsTo protest anti-black violence; to promote anti-lynching legislation, and advance black civil rights
MethodsPublic demonstration

The Negro Silent Protest Parade, commonly known as the Silent Parade, was a political protest in New York City on July 28, 1917. The purpose of the parade was to bring attention to discrimination and violence faced by African Americans, particularly the recent East St. Louis massacre, and lynchings in Waco and Memphis. Organizers of the parade included several African American groups, led by the recently formed National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

Starting at 57th Street, the parade route proceeded down Fifth Avenue, ending at Madison Square. An estimated 8,000 to 15,000 African Americans marched in silence, accompanied by a muffled drum beat. The parade was widely publicized and drew attention to violence against African Americans. Parade organizers hoped the parade would prompt the federal government to enact anti-lynching legislation, but President Woodrow Wilson did not act on the demands of the African Americans. The federal government would not pass an anti-lynching law until 2022, when the Emmett Till Antilynching Act was passed.

Background

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Lynching

[edit]
Photograph of a burned corpse hanging from a tree
The lynching of Jesse Washington was one of the events prompting the Silent Parade. He was repeatedly lowered into fire for two hours in front of 15,000 white spectators.[1][2][a]
Further information: Lynching in the United States

Lynchings were widespread extrajudicial killings that began in the United States' pre–Civil War South in the 1830s and continued until 1981.[4][5] Along with disenfranchisement, Jim Crow laws, and discrimination, lynching was one of many forms of racism inflicted on African Americans.[6][b] The frequency of lynchings steadily increased after the Civil War, peaking around 1892. They remained common into the early 1900s, experiencing a resurgence in 1915 following the founding of the Second Ku Klux Klan.[3][7] One study counted 3,265 African American victims of lynching from 1883 to 1941.[8]

The Silent Parade took place at a time when lynchings were beginning to be widely publicized – particularly by the NAACP under the leadership of W. E. B. Du Bois. Two years before the Silent Parade, the NAACP's magazine The Crisis published an article titled "The Lynching Industry", which contained a year-by-year tabulation of 2,732 lynchings, spanning the years 1884 to 1914.[9][10][11] During the year leading up to the parade, The Crisis published a series of articles documenting specific lynchings, including: a group lynching of six African Americans in Lee County, Georgia;[9][12] the lynching of Jesse Washington, a mentally impaired 17-year-old African American, in Waco, Texas; [13][c] and the lynching of Ell Persons in Memphis, Tennessee.[14][15][16][d] These lynchings were precursors to the Silent Parade.[15]

East St. Louis massacre

[edit]
Cartoon drawing, showing an African American woman on her knees, begging President Wilson. Wilson is holding a newspaper with a headline that says "The wold must be made safe for democracy"
1917 political cartoon showing Wilson ignoring the plight of African Americans amidst the riots in East St. Louis.[17][e]
Further information: East St. Louis massacre

The specific events that precipitated the Silent Parade were a series of riots that took place in East St. Louis from May to July 1917. The rioting, by white residents, originated when the mostly white employees of the Aluminum Ore Company voted in Spring 1917 for a labor strike and the Company recruited hundreds of African Americans to replace them.[18][19] Estimates of the number of African Americans killed by white mobs range from 39 to 200; hundreds were injured; and thousands were made homeless.[20][21][22]

Du Bois and activist Martha Gruening visited the city after the massacre and spoke with witnesses and survivors.[23] In September 1917, they published an article in The Crisis that described the riots in unusually explicit terms.[23][24] After the riots, many African Americans were discouraged, and felt that it was unlikely that the United States would ever permit African Americans to enjoy full citizenship and equal rights.[25] The brutality of the attacks by mobs of white people, coupled with the failure of police to protect the African American community, led to renewed calls for African American civil rights from leaders such as Du Bois, Hubert Harrison, and Marcus Garvey.[25][26][27][28]

World War I

[edit]
Further information: United States in World War I § African Americans in the military

In April 1917, one month before the East St. Louis massacre, the United States declared war on the German Empire and joined the Allied Powers of World War I. The mobilization effort dominated the headlines in the United States, and served as a backdrop to the events leading up to the Silent Parade. African American soldiers of that era were treated as second-class citizens, and were segregated from white troops.[29] African Americans had mixed feelings about the war: some recognized military service as an opportunity to demonstrate their worth; others viewed it as yet another situation where they would be exploited by their country.[30] Some African American leaders, such as Du Bois, voiced pro-war sentiments, and encouraged African Americans to join the military.[31][32]

The parade

[edit]

Planning

[edit]
Single page of paper, printed with information about an upcoming parade
Flyer announcing the Silent Parade, published July 24, 1917 by Charles Martin.[20]

James Weldon Johnson, the Field Secretary of the NAACP, worked with a group of influential community leaders from St. Philip's Church in New York to determine how best to protest the recent violence against African Americans.[33][34][35] The concept of a silent protest was suggested by Oswald Garrison Villard during a 1916 NAACP Conference.[35] Villard's mother, anti-war activist Fanny Garrison Villard, had organized a silent march in 1914 to protest the war.[25][36] One month before the Silent Parade, African American women in New York participated in a silent march, alongside white women, to support the Red Cross.[37]. Unlike the anti-war parade of 1914, to which all persons were invited, organizers of the Silent Parade felt that it was important that only African American people participate, because they were the primary victims of the recent violence.[35]

A week before the parade, an announcement in the African American newspaper The New York Age described it as a "mute but solemn protest against the atrocities and discrimination practiced against the race in various parts of the country."[38] The official name of the parade was the Negro Silent Protest Parade, although some contemporary sources referred to it as the Negro Silent Parade.[20] Men, women, and children alike were invited to take part. It was hoped that ten thousand people would participate, and that African Americans in other cities might hold their own parades.[38][39] During the week before the parade, major newspapers in several states published articles announcing the march.[40][41][42]

Leadership

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The parade was organized by the Harlem branch of the NAACP, with the help of several church and business leaders. Two prominent members of the New York clergy served as executives of the parade: the president was Hutchens Chews Bishop, rector of the city's oldest African American Episcopal parish; and the secretary was Charles Martin, founder of the Fourth Moravian Church.[20] Frederick Asbury Cullen served as vice president.[33] Parade marshals included J. Rosamond Johnson, A. B. Cosey, Christopher Payne, Everard W. Daniel, Allen Wood, James Weldon Johnson, and John E. Nail. Du Bois marched within the group of parade leaders.[33]

Motivation

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The goal of the parade was to protest lynching in particular, and violence against African Americans in general.[43][f] Organizer Charles Martin prepared a flyer which was distributed before the parade as an invitation, and during the parade to bystanders.[20][43] The flyer had a section titled "Why We March" which read, in part:[33][44]

We march because we want to make impossible a repetition of Waco, Memphis, and East St. Louis ... and to bring the murderers of our brothers, sisters and innocent children to justice. We march because we deem it a crime to be silent in the face of such barbaric acts. We march because we are thoroughly opposed to Jim Crow cars, etc., segregation, discrimination, disfranchisement, lynching, and the host of evils that are forced on us.... We march because we want our children to live in a better land and enjoy fairer conditions than have fallen to our lot. We march in memory of our butchered dead...[20][g]

The flyer was signed by Martin "Yours in righteous indignation."[44]

The march

[edit]
Rare newsreel footage of the parade, discovered in the Yukon in 1978 after being buried in permafrost for 50 years.[45]

In the midst of a record heat wave in New York City on Saturday, July 28, an estimated 8,000 to 15,000 African Americans marched in silent protest.[46][47][48] The march began at 57th Street, and proceeded down Fifth Avenue, ending at Madison Square.[33][46] Mounted police escorted the parade.[21][26][46]

Eight hundred children led the parade, followed by women dressed in white, then men dressed in black. Their attire was formal and uniform, and they marched in rows.[26][21][46] Academic Soyica Colbert analyzed the performative aspects of the parade: "...the deliberate refinement of the clothing reinforced the relationship between rights and respectability. The protestors presented themselves as citizens while affirming the look of citizenship."[43]

People of all races looked on from both sides of Fifth Avenue, including an estimated 15,000 African Americans, according to The New York Age.[46] African American boy scouts handed out flyers describing why they were marching.[43] During the parade, white people stopped to listen to marchers explain the reasons for the march, and other white bystanders expressed support.[46] Many spectators were moved by the spectacle; in his autobiography, organizer James Johnson wrote “the streets of New York have witnessed many strange sites, but I judge, never one stranger than this; among the watchers were those with tears in their eyes.”[49]

Although the marchers were silent, many of them carried signs and banners that described contributions of African Americans to American society, or gave reasons for the protest.[33][h] Many of the placards contained slogans highlighting military service by African Americans, reflecting the fact that the country had just entered World War I.[33] Some signs appealed directly to President Woodrow Wilson.[25] One notable banner displayed an African American family in the ruins of East St. Louis, pleading with Wilson to bring democracy to the U.S. before he brought it to Europe (World War I was in progress at the time). Police deemed the banner in "poor taste", so parade organizers withdrew the banner before the parade began.[25][47][i]

The New York Times described the parade in an article published the following day:

"To the beat of muffled drums 8,000 negro men, women and children marched down Fifth Avenue yesterday in a parade of 'silent protest against acts of discrimination and oppression' inflicted upon them in this country, and in other parts of the world. Without a shout or a cheer they made their cause known through many banners which they carried, calling attention to 'Jim Crowism', segregation, disenfranchisement, and the riots of Waco, Memphis, and East St. Louis."[47]

The parade was the first large, exclusively African American protest in New York; and was the second instance of African Americans publicly demonstrating for civil rights.[50][51][j] Media coverage of the march helped to counter the dehumanization of African Americans in the United States.[43] The parade and its coverage depicted the NAACP as well-organized and respectable, and helped increase the visibility of the NAACP both among white and black people alike.[53]

Aftermath and legacy

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President Wilson

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A photograph of a typed petition, on a single piece of paper, with several signatures at the bottom
Petition submitted by NAACP to President Wilson shortly after the Silent Parade.[54]

Marchers hoped to persuade President Wilson to implement anti-lynching legislation and support African American civil rights. Four days after the Silent Parade, a group of NAACP leaders traveled to Washington D.C. for a prearranged appointment with Wilson.[54][55] Upon arrival at the White House, the group was told that Wilson was unable to meet with them due to another appointment.[54][55] They left a petition they had prepared for Wilson, which reminded him of African Americans serving in World War I and asked him to take steps to prevent lynchings in the future.[54][55][k] In July 1918, Wilson issued a written statement discouraging mob violence, but it fell short of the anti-lynching legislation the marchers hoped for.[56] Discrimination against African Americans significantly increased during the Wilson presidency (1913 – 1921) as a result of Wilson's policy of segregating the federal government workforce.[57][58][59][60]

Red Summer

[edit]
Further information: Red Summer

As World War I drew to an end, there was considerable social tension as returning veterans of all races tried to find work, and black veterans struggled to gain better treatment after their war service.[61] During the summer of 1919, later called the Red Summer, racial riots of whites against blacks broke out in numerous industrial cities during these tensions and economic strife.[62][63] In contrast to the East St. Louis massacre, the 1919 events were characterized by many instances of black people fighting back against their attackers.[63][64][65][l] In October 1919, African American sociologist George Edmund Haynes, an employee of the federal government, published a detailed report outlining the white-on-black violence of the summer, and noted that states were unwilling to intervene. The report urged the U.S. Congress to take action and identified 38 separate racial riots against blacks in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked black people.[67] In addition, Haynes reported that between January 1 and September 14, 1919, white mobs lynched at least 43 African Americans, with 16 hanged, some shot, and eight burned at the stake.[67]

Impact on lynching

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A large group of African American children dressed in white clothing, marching in a parade on a wide street
Children led the silent parade, followed by women, then men.[46]

The Silent Parade failed to reduce the number of lynchings of African Americans; in fact, the number of lynchings per year increased after the parade.[8] It was not until 1923 that the number of lynchings fell below the 1917 quantity. Lynchings continued into the 1960s.[8]

After the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was introduced in Congress in 1918, two silent marches were organized by African Americans to show support: on June 14, 1922 in Washington, D.C., about 5,000 people marched in front of the White House and Congress holding signs supporting the anti lynching legislation.[68]. In the same month, women members of the NAACP in Newark, New Jersey organized a similar silent parade.[69] The Dyer bill was not passed by Congress, nor were any of the nearly 200 anti-lynching bills that were introduced between the end of the Civil War and the civil rights movement.[70][m] The Civil Rights Act of 1968 created new federal crimes for violent acts based on the race of the victim. In 2022, Congress passed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act, which extended existing federal hate crime laws to encompass any members of a mob who conspired to injure a victim.[72][73][n]

100th anniversary

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A drawing of the silent parade, in a modern graphical style, with the word "Google" underneath.
Many people learned about the Silent Parade when it was featured as a Google Doodle on the 100th anniversary of the march.[75]

Several events commemorated the one-hundredth anniversary of the parade, July 28, 2017. On that day, Google commemorated the Silent Parade with a Google Doodle.[75] The Google Doodle was responsible for many people learning about the Silent Parade.[76] In East St. Louis, a week-long commemoration of the riots and Silent Parade was held in July 2017, on the 100th anniversary of the riots.[77] Around 300 people marched from the Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Higher Learning Center to the Eads Bridge.[78] Everyone marched in silence, with many women in white and men wearing black suits.[78] A group of artists, along with the NAACP, reenacted the silent march in New York on the evening of July 28, 2017.[79] The event, with around 100 people and many participants wearing white, was not able to march down Fifth Avenue because the city would not grant access due to Trump Tower's location on that street.[80] The commemoration took place on Sixth Avenue instead, and the group held up portraits of contemporary victims of violence by both police and vigilantes in the United States.[80]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^ This photograph of Washington is an example of many photographs of lynchings printed on postcards, and distributed by white people to celebrate successful lynchings.[3]
  2. ^ For more details of the racism of that era, see Nadir of American race relations.
  3. ^ The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in Waco, Texas.[2] The Crisis included photographs of the lynching.[13]
  4. ^ The Crisis published a second article about the Ell Persons lynching, in August 1917, after the Silent Parade had occurred.[16]
  5. ^ Cartoon published in The Kansas City Sun, July 14, 1917.[17]
  6. ^ The African American newspaper The New York Age publicized the parade a week beforehand, writing: "The Silent Parade ... should be made a mute but solemn protest against the atrocities and discriminations practiced against the race in various parts of the country... As a sober, dignified protest against the wrongs complained of, as well as a protest against the failure of the proper authorities to provide adequate protection and redress, the parade should be made as imposing as numbers and bearing can make it. The ministers of the various churches, together with all race organizations and societies, should rally to make this movement a monster success."[38]
  7. ^ "Waco" and "Memphis" refer to the recentl lynchings in those cities.
  8. ^ After the parade, an issue of The Crisis magazine included an article that listed approximately 60 slogans that were displayed on placards.[33] Some examples:
    • America has lynched without trial 2,867 Negroes in 31 years and not a single murderer has suffered
    • We have fought for the liberty of white Americans in 6 wars; our reward is East St. Louis
    • We are maligned as lazy and murdered when we work
    • Our music is the only American music
  9. ^ The banner was an enlargement of a political cartoon from the The Kansas City Sun.[17][25]
  10. ^ The first instance was picketing against the 1915 film The Birth of a Nation.[52]
  11. ^ The petition was signed by John E. Nail, James Weldon Johnson, Everard W. Daniel, George Frazier Miller, Fred R. Moore, A. B. Cosey, D. Ivison Hoage, Isaac B. Allen, Maria C. Lawton, Madam C. J. Walker, and Frederick A. Cullen (chairman).[54]
  12. ^ In May 1919, following the first serious racial incidents of the Red Summer, W. E. B. Du Bois published the editorial "Returning Soldiers" in The Crisis which read, in part: "We return from the slavery of uniform which the world's madness demanded us to don to the freedom of civil garb. We stand again to look America squarely in the face and call a spade a spade. We sing: This country of ours, despite all its better souls have done and dreamed, is yet a shameful land.… We return. We return from fighting. We return fighting."[66]
  13. ^ Many anti-lynching bills passed the House of Representatives, but were defeated in the U.S. Senate by senators from Southern states.[71]
  14. ^ Lynching was a crime in all states under various state laws, although it was often not prosecuted. Crimes that applied to lynching included murder, battery, kidnapping, attempted murder, and conspiracy to commit murder. Starting in the late 20th century, many states passed hate crime legislation that enhances sentences when racial animus is a motivating factor.[74]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ SoRelle 2007.
  2. ^ a b Lewis 2009, pp. 335–336.
  3. ^ a b Kim 2012.
  4. ^ "Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror" (3rd ed.). Equal Justice Initiative. 2017. Archived from the original on May 10, 2018.
  5. ^ Wood, Amy Louise (2009). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874–1947. North Carolina University Press. ISBN 9780807878118. OCLC 701719807.
  6. ^ Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1997) [1965]. The betrayal of the Negro, from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (Reprint ed.). Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306807589. OCLC 35777358. Retrieved April 1, 2025.
  7. ^ Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (2007). On the Courthouse Lawn: Confronting the Legacy of Lynching in the Twenty-First Century. Boston: Beacon. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8070-0988-8. Retrieved March 31, 2025.
  8. ^ a b c SeguinRigby 2019.
  9. ^ a b Lewis 2009, p. 335.
  10. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B., ed. (February 1915). "The Lynching Industry". The Crisis. Vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 196–198. ISSN 0011-1422. Retrieved March 29, 2025.
  11. ^ Shillady, John, ed. (1919). Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889-1918. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. LCCN 20013596. Retrieved April 21, 2025.
  12. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B., ed. (April 1916). "The Lynching in Lee County GA". The Crisis. Vol. 11, no. 6. pp. 303–310. ISSN 0011-1422. Retrieved March 29, 2025.
  13. ^ a b Du Bois 1916a.
  14. ^ Johnson, James Weldon (July 1917). Du Bois, W. E. B. (ed.). "Memphis: May 22, AD, 1917" (PDF). The Crisis. Vol. 14, no. 3. ISSN 0011-1422. Retrieved April 17, 2025. The Ell Person article was a one page supplement to this issue.
  15. ^ a b Young 2018, pp. 53–54.
  16. ^ a b Du Bois 1917b.
  17. ^ a b c Gray 2018.
  18. ^ Keyes, Allison (June 30, 2017). "The East St. Louis Race Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
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  21. ^ a b c Meacham 2004.
  22. ^ Barnes, Harper (2011). Never Been a Time: The 1917 Race Riot That Sparked the Civil Rights Movement. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 9780802779748.
  23. ^ a b Waxman, Olivia B. "The Forgotten March That Started the National Civil Rights Movement Took Place 100 Years Ago". Time. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
  24. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B., ed. (September 1917). "The Massacre of East St. Louis" (PDF). The Crisis. 14 (5): 219–238. ISSN 0011-1422. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
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  26. ^ a b c James 1998.
  27. ^ Shapiro, Herbert (1988). White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 163. ISBN 9780870235788. LCCN 87006009. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  28. ^ Garvey, Marcus (2023). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. I: 1826 – August 1919. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520342224. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  29. ^ Bryan, Jami L. (2002). "Fighting for Respect: African Americans in World War I". On Point. 8 (4): 11–14. ISSN 2577-1337. JSTOR 44610299. Retrieved April 3, 2025.
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  31. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B., ed. (June 1917). "Resolutions of the Washington Conference". The Crisis. Vol. 14, no. 2. pp. 59–62. Retrieved April 3, 2025.
  32. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B. (July 1918). "Close Ranks". The Crisis. Vol. 16, no. 3. p. 111. Retrieved April 3, 2025.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h Du Bois 1917a.
  34. ^ Milward, Jessica (2015). Finding Charity's Folks. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0820348797. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
  35. ^ a b c Newman 2017.
  36. ^ Marchand 2015, p. 189.
  37. ^ "Colored Women Take Part in "Silent Parde" on Fifth Avenue for Red Cross". The New York Age. June 28, 1917. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  38. ^ a b c The Silent Parade proposed to be held, New York Age, 1917.
  39. ^ "The Silent Parade". The New York Age. July 26, 1917. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  40. ^ "Negroes to Hold a Silent Parade". The Daily Times. July 25, 1917. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  41. ^ "To Have Silent Parade". Palladium-Item. July 25, 1917. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  42. ^ "New York Negro to Protest Riots". The Oklahoma City Times. July 25, 1917. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  43. ^ a b c d e Colbert 2017.
  44. ^ a b Debotch 2019.
  45. ^ Berger, Sally (2018). "Bill Morrison: The Art of the Archive" (PDF). Black Maria Film Festival program. p. 25. Retrieved April 17, 2025.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g Walton 1917.
  47. ^ a b c Negroes in Protest March, New York Times, 1917.
  48. ^ "15,000 Negroes in Anti-Riot Parade". New York Herald. July 29, 1917. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  49. ^ Johnson, J.W. (2008). Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 321. ISBN 9780143105176. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  50. ^ Lewis 2009, p. 352.
  51. ^ "Listening to the Silent Parade of 1917: The Forgotten Civil Rights March". The Bowery Boys: New York City History. July 27, 2017. Archived from the original on July 27, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
  52. ^ Lewis 2009, pp. 330–332.
  53. ^ Sartain, Lee (2007). Invisible Activists: Women of the Louisiana NAACP and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1915–1945. Louisiana State University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0807135761. Retrieved March 30, 2025.
  54. ^ a b c d e Morand 2020.
  55. ^ a b c Stille 2007.
  56. ^ "President Woodrow Wilson's proclamation of July 26, 1918, denouncing lynching" (PDF). Retrieved April 3, 2025. The printed proclamation was distributed as a press release, but was not recited in a speech by the president.
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  63. ^ a b Onion, Rebecca (March 4, 2015). "Red Summer". Slate.
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  65. ^ Maxouris, Christina (July 27, 2019). "100 years ago, white mobs across the country attacked black people. And they fought back". CNN. Retrieved July 29, 2019.
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  67. ^ a b Haynes, George (October 5, 1919). "For Action on Race Riot Peril". New York Times. p. 112.
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  77. ^ Johnson, Kaley (July 2, 2017). "March in memory of race riot victims gives voice to history and healing". Belleville News-Democrat. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
  78. ^ a b Vaughn 2017.
  79. ^ Angeleti, Gabriella (July 28, 2017). "Arts group to restage historic civil rights protest in New York". The Art Newspaper. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
  80. ^ a b Lartey 2017.

Sources

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  • Du Bois, W. E. B., ed. (July 1916a). "The Waco Horror". The Crisis. Vol. 12, no. 3. pp. 1–8. ISSN 0011-1422. Retrieved March 29, 2025. "The Waco Horror" was an eight page supplement at the end of the magazine, with its own page numbering, pages 1 to 8.
  • SoRelle, James M. (2007). "The 'Waco Horror': The Lynching of Jesse Washington". In Bruce A. Glasrud; James Smallwood (eds.). The African American Experience in Texas: An Anthology. Texas Tech University Press. pp. 183–202. ISBN 978-0-89672-609-3.
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  • "New York - Silent Protest Parade". Yale University Library - Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Retrieved 15 April 2025. Collection of photos of the Silent Parade.
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